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THE 

LEADING  FACTS  OF  ENGLISH 
HISTORY. 


BY 

D.  H.  MONTGOMERY. 


'•'  Nothing  in  the  past  is  dead  to  the  man  who  would  learn  how  the  present 
came  to  be  what  it  is."  —  STUBBS  :    Constitutional  History  of  England. 


SECOND    EDITION,    REVISED. 


BOSTON,  U.S. A.: 

GINN   &   COMPANY,   PUBLISHERS. 

1891. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by 

D.  H.  MONTGOMERY, 
*n  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1889,  by 

D.  H.  MONTGOMERY, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  J.  S.  GUSHING  &  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A 
PRESSWORK  BY  GINN  &  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


SRLF 
URL 


I' dedicate  this  book 

to  my  friend  3f«  3*  JH«,  who  generously 

gave  time,   labor,   and  valuable 

suggestions  towards  its 

preparation  for 

the  press. 


LEADING  FACTS  OF  HISTORY  SERIES. 

By  D.    H.  MONTGOMERY. 
* 

THE    LEADING    FACTS   OF  AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

With  numerous   Illustrations,    Maps,   and   Tables.     Mailing  Price, 
$1.10;    Introduction   Price,  $1.00. 

THE    LEADING    FACTS   OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

(Revised  Edition.)     With   numerous  Maps  and  Tables.     Mailing 
Price,  $1.25;    Introduction  Price,  $1.12. 

THE    LEADING    FACTS   OF   FRENCH    HISTORY. 

With  numerous  Maps  and  Tables.     Mailing  Price,  $1.25;    Intro- 
duction Price,   $1.12. 

* 

GINN  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS. 


PREFACE. 


MOST  of  the  materials  for  this  book  were  gathered  by  the  writer 
during  several  years'  residence  in  England. 

The  attempt  is  here  made  to  present  them  in  a  manner  that  shall 
illustrate  the  great  law  of  national  growth,  in  the  light  thrown  upon 
it  by  the  foremost  English  historians. 

The  authorities  for  the  different  periods  will  be  found  in  the 
List  of  Books  on  page  404;  but  the  author  desires  to  particularly 
acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the  works  of  Gardiner,  Guest, 
and  Green,  and  to  the  excellent  constitutional  histories  of  Taswell- 
Langmead  and  Ransome. 


SECOND   EDITION. 

The  present  edition  has  been  very  carefully  revised  throughout, 
and  numerous  maps  and  genealogical  tables  have  been  added. 

The  author's  hearty  thanks  are  due  to  G.  Mercer  Adam,  Esq.,  of 
Toronto,  Canada  ;  Prof.  W.  F.  Allen,  of  The  University  of  Wisconsin; 
President  Myers,  of  Belmont  College,  *Ohio;  Prof.  George  W.  Knight, 
of  Ohio  State  University ;  and  to  Miss  M.  A.  Parsons,  teacher  of  his- 
tory in  the  High  School,  Winchester,  Mass.,  for  the  important  aid 
which  they  have  kindly  rendered. 


CONTENTS 


I.   Britain  before  History  begins  , ...  I 

II.   The  Relation  of  the  Geography  of  England  to  its  History  ...  12 

III.  A  Civilization  which  did  not  civilize ;   Roman  Britain  .     ....  18 

IV.  The  Coming  of  the  Saxons ;  Britain  becomes  England1.     ...  31 
V.  The  Coming  of  the  Normans 58 

VI.  The  Angevins,  or  Plantagenets ;  Rise  of  the  English  Nation   .     .  87 

VII.   The  Self-Destruction  of  Feudalism 150 

VIII.   Absolutism  of  the  Crown ;  the  Reformation ;  the  New  Learning .  179 
IX.  The  Stuart  Period ;    the  Divine  Right  of  Kings  -vs.  the  Divine 

Right  of  the  People 229 

X.   The  American  Revolution ;    the  House  of  Commons  the  Ruling 

Power ;    the  Era  of  Reform 306 

Table  of  Principal  Dates 391 

Descent  of  the  English  Sovereigns 402 

List  of  Books 404 

Statistics 409 

Index 410 


1  Each  section  or  period  is  followed  by  a  general  view  of  that  period. 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

V 

MAPS. 

MAP  PACK 

I.   County  Map  of  England  and  Wales  (in  colors) .     Frontispiece. 

II.   Britain  before  its  Separation  from  the  Continent 4 

III.  Roman  Britain 24 

IV.  The  Continental  Home  of  the    English,  with  their  Successive 

Invasions  of  Britain 34 

V.   The  English  Settlements  and  Kingdoms 38 

VI.    Danish  England 42 

VII.  The  Four  Great  Earldoms 44 

VIII.   The  Dominions  of  the  Angevins,  or  Plantagenets 88 

IX.  The  English  Possessions  in  France,  1360  (in  colors)       ....  130 

X.   England  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 174 

XI.  The  World  as  known  in  1497,  Reign  of  Henry  VII.,  showing 

Voyages  of  Discovery  by  the  Cabots  and  Others 186 

XII.   Drake's  Circumnavigation  of  the  Globe,  with  the  First  English 

Colonies  planted  in  America 218 

XIII.  England  during  the  Civil  Wars  of  the  Seventeenth  Century     .     .  244 

XIV.  Clive's  Conquests  in  India 3l8 

XV.   The  British  Empire  at  the  Present  Time 382 

XVI.    Plan  of  a  Manor  . 80 


THE 

LEADING  FACTS  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY. 

i. 

"  This  fortress  built  by  Nature  for  herself 
Against  infection  and  the  hand  of  war; 
This  happy  breed  of  men,  this  little  world, 
This  precious  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea, 
Which  serves  it  in  the  office  of  a  wall, 
Or  as  a  moat  defensive  to  a  house, 
Against  the  envy  of  less  happier  lands; 
This  blessed  plot,  this  earth,  this  realm,  this  England." 

SHAKESPEARE,  Richard  II. 

BRITAIN   BEFORE  WRITTEN    HISTORY  BEGINS. 

THE   COUNTRY. 

1.  Britain  once  a  Part  of  the  Continent.  —  The  island  of  Great 
Britain  has  not  always  had  its  present  form.     Though  separated 
from  Europe  now  by  the  English  Channel  and  the  North  Sea,  yet 
there  is  abundant  geological  evidence  that  it  was  once  a  part  of 
the  continent. 

2.  Proofs. — The  chalk  cliffs  of  Dover  are  really  a  continua- 
tion of  the  chalk  of  Calais,  and  the  strait  dividing  them,  which  is 
nowhere  more  than  thirty  fathoms  deep,1  is  simply  the  result  of  a 

l  The  width  of  the  Strait  of  Dover  at  its  narrowest  point  is  twenty-one  miles. 
The  bottom  is  a  continuous  ridge  of  chalk.  If  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  were  placed  in 
the  strait,  midway  between  England  and  France,  more  than  half  of  the  building 
would  be  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 


2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

slight  and  comparatively  recent  depression  in  that  chalk.  The 
waters  of  the  North  Sea  are  also  shallow,  and  in  dredging,  great 
quantities  of  the  same  fossil  remains  of  land  animals  are  brought 
up  which  are  found  buried  in  the  soil  of  England,  Belgium,  and 
France.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt  that  the  bed  of  this  sea,  where  these  creatures  made 
their  homes,  must  once  have  been  on  a  level  with  the  countries 
whose  shores  it  now  washes. 

3.  Appearance  of  the  Country. — What  we   know  to-day  as 
England,  was  at  that  time  a  western   projection  of  the  continent, 
wild,  desolate,  and  without  a  name.1     The  high  hill  ranges  show 
unmistakable  marks  of  the  glaciers  which  once  ploughed  down  their 
sides,  and  penetrated  far  into  the  valleys,  as  they  still  continue  to 
do  among  the  Alps. 

4.  The  Climate. — The  climate  then  was  probably  like  that  of 
Greenland  now.     Europe  was  but  just  emerging,  if,  indeed,  it  had 
begun  to  finally  emerge,  from  that  long  period  during  which  the 
upper  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere  was  buried  under  a  vast 
field  of  ice  and  snow. 

5.  Trees  and  Animals. — The  trees  and  animals  corresponded 
to  the  climate  and  the  country.     Forests  of  fir,  pine,  and  stunted 
oak,  such  as  are  now  found  in  latitudes  much  farther  north,  cov- 
ered the  lowlands  and  the  lesser   hills.     Through  these  roamed 
the  reindeer,  the  mammoth,  the  wild  horse,  the  bison  or  "buf- 
falo," and  the  cave-bear. 

MAN.  — THE   ROUGH-STONE  AGE. 

6.  His  Condition.  —  Man  seems  to  have  taken  up  his  abode  in 
Britain  before  it  was  severed  from  the  mainland.     His  condition 
was  that  of  the  lowest  and  most  brutal  savage.    He  probably  stood 
apart,  even  from  his  fellow-men,  in  selfish  isolation;  if  so,  he  was 

i  See  Map  No.  2,  page  4. 


BRITAIN    BEFORE    WRITTEN    HISTORY    BEGINS.  3 

bound  to  no  tribe,  acknowledged  no  chief,  obeyed  no  law.  All 
his  interests  were  centred  in  himself  and  in  the  little  group  which 
constituted  his  family. 

7.  How  he  lived.  —  His  house  was  the  first  empty  cave  he 
found,  or  a  rude  rock-shelter  made  by  piling  up  stones  in  some 
partially   protected   place.     Here    he   dwelt   during   the   winter. 
In  summer,  when  his  wandering  life  began,  he  built  himself  a 
camping  place  of  branches  and  bark,  under  the  shelter  of  an  over- 
hanging cliff  by  the  sea,  or  close  to  the  bank  of  a  river.     He  had 
no  tools.     When  he  wanted  a  fire  he  struck  a  bit  of  flint  against 
a  lump  of  iron  ore,  or  made  a  flame  by  rubbing  two  dry  sticks 
rapidly  together.     His  only  weapon  was  a  club  or  a  stone.     As 
he  did  not  dare  encounter  the  larger  and  fiercer  animals,  he  rarely 
ventured  into  the  depths  of  the  forests,  but  subsisted  on  the  shell- 
fish he  picked  up  along  the  shore,  or  on  any  chance  game  he 
might  have  the  good  fortune  to  kill,  to  which,  as  a  relish,  he  added 
berries  or  pounded  roots. 

8.  His  First  Tools    and  Weapons.  —  In   process  of  time  he 
learned  to  make  rough  tools  and  weapons  from  pieces  of  flint, 
which  he  chipped  to  an  edge  by  striking  them  together.     When 
he  had  thus  succeeded  in  shaping  for  himself  a  spear-point,  or 
had  discovered  how  to  make  a  bow  and  to  tip  the  arrows  with  a 
sharp  splinter  of  stone,  his  condition  changed.     He  now  felt  that 
he  was  a  match  for  the  beasts  he  had  fled  from  before.     Thus 
armed,  he  slew  the  reindeer  and  the  bison,  used  their  flesh  for 
food,  their  skins  for  clothing,  while  he  made  thread  from  their 
sinews,  and  needles  and  other  implements  from  their  bones.     Still, 
though  he  had  advanced  from  his  first  helpless  state,  his  life  must 
have  continued  to  be  a  constant  battle  with  the  beasts  and  the 
elements. 

9.  His  Moral  and  Religious  Nature.  —  His  moral  nature  was 
on  a  level  with  his  intellect.     No  questions  of  conscience  dis- 
turbed him.     In  every  case  of  dispute  might  made  right. 

His  religion  was  the  terror  inspired  by  the  forces  and  convul- 


4  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

sions  of  nature,  and  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  constantly 
exposed.  Such,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe,  was  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Cave-Man  who  first  inhabited  Britain,  and  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  and  the  East. 

10.  Duration  of  the  Rough-Stone  Age.  —  The  period  in  which 
he  lived  is  called  the  Old  or  Rough- Stone  Age,  a  name  derived 
from  the  implements  then  in  use. 

When  that  age  began,  or  when  it  came  to  a  close,  are  questions 
which  at  present  cannot  be  answered.  But  we  may  measure  the 
time  which  has  elapsed  since  man  appeared  in  Britain  by  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  country.  We  know  that 
sluggish  streams  like  the  Avon,  with  whose  channel  the  lapse  of 
many  centuries  has  made  scarcely  any  material  difference,  have, 
little  by  little,  cut  their  way  down  through  beds  of  gravel  till  they 
have  scooped  out  valleys  sometimes  a  hundred  feet  deep.  We 
know  also  the  climate  is  wholly  unlike  now  what  it  once  was,  and 
that  the  animals  of  that  far-off  period  have  either  wholly  disap- 
peared from  the  globe  or  are  found  only  in  distant  regions. 

The  men  who  were  contemporary  with  them  have  vanished  in 
like  manner.  But  that  they  were  contemporary  we  may  feel  sure 
from  two  well-established  grounds  of  evidence. 

11.  Remains  of  the  Rough-Stone  Age.  — First,  their  flint  knives 
and  arrows  are  found  in  the  caves,  mingled  with  ashes  and  with  the 
bones  of  the  animals  on  which  they  feasted ;  these  bones  having 
been  invariably  split  in  order  that  they  might  suck  out  the  mar- 
row.1    Next,  we  have  the  drawings  they  made  of  those  very  creat- 
ures scratched  on  a  tusk  or  on  a  smooth  piece  of  slate  with  a  bit 
of  sharp-pointed  quartz.2      Nearly  everything  else  has  perished ; 

1  Very  few  remains  of  the  Cave-Men  themselves  have  yet  been  found,  and  these 
with  the  most  trifling  exceptions  have  been  discovered  on  the  continent,  especially 
in  France  and  Switzerland.     The  first  rough-stone  implement  found  in  England 
was  dug  up  in  Gray's  Inn  Road,  London,  in  1690.     It  is  of  flint,  and  in  shape 
and  size  resembles  a  very  large  pear.     It  forms  the  nucleus  of  a  collection  in  the 
British  Museum. 

2  These  drawings  have  been  found  in  considerable  number  on  the  continent. 


No.    2. 

BRITAIN    BEFORE   ITS  SEPARATION   FROM   THE   CONTINENT   OF   EUROPE. 


To  face  page  4. 

The  dark  lines  represent  land,  now  submerged. 

The  dotted  area,  that  occupied  by  animals. 

The  white  land  area,  portions  once  covered  by  glaciers. 

The  figures  show  the  present  depth  of  sea  in  fathoms. 

F.  (France),  T.  (Thames),  W.  (Wales),  S.  (Scotland),  I.  (Ireland). 

?,  doubtful  area,  but  probably  glacial. 


BRITAIN    BEFORE    WRITTEN    HISTORY    BEGINS.  5 

even  their  burial  places,  if  they  had  any,  have  been  swept  away  by 
the  destroying  action  of  time.  Yet  these  memorials  have  come 
down  to  us,  so  many  fragments  of  imperishable  history,  made  by 
that  primeval  race  who  possessed  no  other  means  of  recording  the 
fact  of  their  existence  and  their  work. 


THE  AGE   OF   POLISHED   STONE. 

12.  The  Second  Race ;    Britain  an  Island.  —  Following  the 
Cave-Men,  there  came  a  higher  race  who  took  possession  of  the 
country ;  these  were  the  men  of  the  New  or  Polished-Stone  Age. 
When  they  reached  Britain,  it  had  probably  become  an  island. 
Long  before  their  arrival  the  land  on  the  east  and  south  had  been 
slowly  sinking,  till  at  last  the  waters  of  the  North  Sea  crept  in  and 
made  the  separation  complete.     The  new-comers  appear  to  have 
brought  with  them  the  knowledge  of  grinding  and  polishing  stone, 
and  of  shaping  it  into  hatchets,  chisels,  spears,  and  other  weapons 
and  utensils.1    They  did  not,  like  the  race  of  the  Rough-Stone 
Period,  depend  upon  such  chance  pieces  of  flint  as  they  might 
pick  up,  and  which  would  be  of  inferior  quality,  but  they  had 
regular  quarries  for  digging  their  supplies.     They  also  obtained 
polished-stone  implements  of  a  superior  kind  from  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  continent,  which  they  in  turn  got  by  traffic  with  Asiatic 
countries. 

13.  Government  and  Mode    of   Life. — These  people  were 
organized  into  tribes  or  clans  under  the  leadership  of  a  chief. 
They  lived  in  villages  or  "  pit  circles  "  consisting  of  a  group  of 
holes  dug  in  the  ground,  each  large  enough  to  accommodate  a 

family.     These  pits  were  roofed  over  with  branches  covered  with 

* 

Thus  far  the  only  one  discovered  in  England  is  the  head  of  a  horse  scratched  or 
cut  in  bone.  It  came  from  the  upper  cave-earth  of  Robin  Htood  Cave,  in  the 
Cresswell  Crags,  Derbyshire.  See  Dawkins'  Early  Man  in  Britain,  page  185. 

1  Grinding  or  polishing  stone:  this  was  done  by  rubbing  the  tools  or  weapons, 
after  they  had  been  chipped  into  shape,  on  a  smooth,  flat  stone.  The  natives  of 
Australia  still  practise  this  art. 


6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

slabs  of  baked  clay.  The  entrance  to  them  was  a  long,  inclined 
passage,  through  which  the  occupants  crawled  on  their  hands  and 
knees. 

Armed  with  their  stone  hatchets,  these  men  were  able  to  cut 
down  trees  and  to  make  log  canoes  in  which  they  crossed  to  the 
mainland.  They  could  also  undertake  those  forest  clearings  which 
had  been  impossible  before.  The  point,  however,  of  prime  differ- 
ence and  importance  was  their  mode  of  subsistence. 

14.  Farming  and  Cattle-Raising.  —  Unlike  their  predecessors, 
this  second  race  did  not  depend  on  hunting  and  fishing  alone, 
but  were  herdsmen  and  farmers  as  well.     They  had  brought  from 
other  countries  such  cereals  as  wheat  and  barley,  and  such  domes- 
tic animals  as  the  ox,  sheep,  hog,  horse,  and  dog.     Around  their 
villages  they  cultivated  fields  of  grain,  while  in  the  adjacent  woods 
and  pastures  they  kept  herds  of  swine  and  cattle. 

15.  Arts.  —  They  had  learned  the  art  of  pottery,  and  made 
dishes  and  other  useful  vessels  of  clay,  which  they  baked  in  the 
fire.     They  raised  flax  and  spun  and  wove  it  into  coarse,  substan- 
tial cloth.     They  may  also  have  had  woollen  garments,  though  no 
remains  of  any  have  reached  us,  perhaps  because  they  are  more 
perishable  than  linen.     They  were  men  of  small  stature,  with  dark 
hair  and  complexion,  and  it  is  supposed  that  they  are  represented 
in  Great  Britain  to-day  by  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Wales. 

16.  Burial  of  the   Dead.  —  They  buried  their  dead  in  long 
mounds,  or  barrows,  some  of  which  are  upward  of  three  hun- 
dred feet  in  length.     These  barrows  were  often  made  by  setting 
up  large,  rough  slabs  of  stone  so  as  to  form  one  or  more  chambers 
which  were  afterward  covered  with  earth.     In  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land these  burial  mounds  are  very  common,  and  in  Wiltshire,  sev- 
eral hundred  occur  within  the  limits  of  an  hour's  walk. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  many  of  these  mounds  have  been 
opened  and  carefully  explored.  Not  only  the  remains  of  the 
builders  have  been  discovered  in  them,  but  with  them  their  tools 
and  weapons.  In  addition  to  these,  earthen  dishes  for  holding 


BRITAIN    BEFORE    WRITTEN    HISTORY    BEGINS.  J 

food  and  drink  have  been  found,  placed  there  it  is  supposed,  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  as  the  American 
Indians  still  do  in  their  interments.  When  a  chief  or  great  man 
died,  it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  of  the  tribe  to  hold 
a  funeral  feast,  and  the  number  of  cleft  human  skulls  dug  up  in 
such  places  has  led  to  the  belief  that  prisoners  of  war  may  have 
been  sacrificed  and  their  flesh  eaten  by  the  assembled  guests  in 
honor  of  the  dead.  Be  that  as  it  may,  there  are  excellent  grounds 
for  supposing  that  these  tribes  were  constantly  at  war  with  each 
other,  and  that  their  battles  were  characterized  by  all  the  fierce- 
ness and  cruelty  which  uncivilized  races  nearly  everywhere  exhibit. 

THE   BRONZE  AGE. 

17.  The  Third  Race.  —  But  great  as  was  the  progress  which  the 
men  of  the  New  or  Polished-Stone  Age  had  made,  it  was  des- 
tined to  be  surpassed.     A  people  had  appeared  in  Europe,  though 
at  what  date  cannot  yet  be  determined,  who  had  discovered  how 
to  melt  and  mingle  two  important  metals,  copper  and  tin. 

18.  Superiority  of  Bronze  to  Stone. — The  product  of  that 
mixture,  named  bronze,  perhaps  from  its  brown  color,  had  this 
great    advantage  :    a    stone    tool    or   weapon,    though    hard,    is 
brittle ;  but  bronze  is  not  only  hard,  but  tough.      Stone,  again, 
cannot    be    ground    to    a    thin    cutting    edge,   whereas    bronze 
can.       Here,   then,  was   a  new  departure.       Here  was  a  new 
power.     From  that  period  the  bronze  axe  and  the  bronze  sword, 
wielded  by  the  muscular  arms  of  a  third  and  stronger  race,  be- 
came the  symbols  of  a  period  appropriately  named  the  Age  of 
Bronze.    The  men  thus  equipped  invaded  Britain.     They  drove 
back  or  enslaved  the  possessors  of  the  soil.    They  conquered  the 
island,  settled  it,  and  held  it  as  their  own  until  the  Roman  legions, 
armed  with  swords  of  steel,  came  in  turn  to  conquer  them. 

19.  Who  the  Bronze-Men  were,  and  how  they  lived. — The 

Bronze-Men  may  be  regarded  as  offshoots  of  the  Celts?  a  large- 


8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENG-LISH    HISTORY. 

limbed,  fair-haired,  fierce-eyed  people,  that  originated  in  Asia,  and 
overran  Central  and  Western  Europe.  Like  the  men  of  the  Age 
of  Polished  Stone,  they  lived  in  settlements  under  chiefs  and  pos- 
sessed a  rude  sort  of  government.  Their  villages  were  built  above 
ground  and  consisted  of  circular  houses  somewhat  resembling  In- 
dian wigwams.  They  were  constructed  of  wood,  chinked  in  with 
clay;  having  pointed  roofs  covered  with  reeds,  with  an  opening  to 
let  out  the  smoke  and  let  in  the  light.  Around  these  villages  the 
inhabitants  dug  a  deep  ditch  for  defence,  to  which  they  added  a 
rampart  of  earth  surmounted  by  a  palisade  of  stout  sticks,  or  by 
felled  trees  piled  on  each  other.  They  kept  sheep  and  cattle. 
They  raised  grain,  which  they  deposited  in  subterranean  store- 
houses for  the  winter.  They  not  only  possessed  all  the  arts  of 
the  Stone -Men,  but  in  addition,  they  were  skilful  workers  in  gold, 
of  which  they  made  necklaces  and  bracelets.  They  also  manu- 
factured woollen  cloth  of  various  textures  and  brilliant  colors. 

They  buried  their  dead  in  round  barrows  or  mounds,  making 
for  them  the  same  provision  that  the  Stone-Men  did.  Though 
divided  into  tribes  and  scattered  over  a  very  large  area,  yet  they 
all  spoke  the  same  language ;  so  that  a  person  would  have  been 
understood  if  he  had  asked  for  bread  and  cheese  in  Celtic  any- 
where from  the  borders  of  Scotland  to  the  southern  boundaries 
of  France. 

20.  Greek  Account  of  the  Bronze-Men  of  Britain.  —  At  what 
time  the  Celts  came  into  Britain  is  not  known,  though  some 
writers  suppose  that  it  was  about  500  B.C.  However  that  may  be, 
we  learn  something  of  their  mode  of  life  two  centuries  later  from 
the  narrative  of  Pytheas,1  a  learned  Greek  navigator  and  geographer 
who  made  a  voyage  to  Britain  at  that  time.  He  says  he  saw  plenty 
of  grain  growing,  and  that  the  farmers  gathered  the  sheaves  at 
harvest  into  large  barns,  where  they  threshed  it  under  cover,  the 
fine  weather  being  so  uncertain  in  the  island  that  they  could  not 
do  it  out  of  doors,  as  in  countries  farther  south.  Here,  then,  we 

1  See  Pytheas,  in  Rhys'  Celtic  Britain  or  Elton's  Origins  of  English  History. 


BRITAIN    BEFORE    WRITTEN    HISTORY    BEGINS.  9 

have  proof  that  the  primitive  Britons  saw  quite  as  little  of  the 
sun  as  their  descendants  do  now.  Another  characteristic  discov- 
ery made  by  Pytheas  was  that  the  farmers  of  that  day  had  learned 
to  make  beer  and  liked  it.  So  that  here,  again,  the  primitive 
Briton  was  in  no  way  behind  his  successors. 

21.  Early  Tin  Trade  of  Britain. — Of  their  skill  in  mining 
Pytheas  does  not  speak,  though  from  that  date,  and  perhaps  many 
centuries  earlier,  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  part  of  the  island 
carried  on  a  brisk  trade  in  tin  ore  with  merchants  of  the  Medi- 
terranean.    Indeed,  if  tradition  can  be  depended  upon,  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre,  who  reigned  over  the  Phoenicians,  a  people  particu- 
larly skilful  in  making  bronze,  and  who  aided  Solomon  in  building 
the  Jewish  temple,  may  have  obtained  his  supplies  of  tin  from  the 
British  Isles.     At  any  rate,  about  the   year  300  B.C.,  a  certain 
Greek  writer  speaks  of  the  country  as  then  well  known,  calling  it 
Albion,  or  the  "  Land  of  the  White  Cliffs." 

22.  Introduction  of  Iron. — About  a  century  after  that  name 
was  given,  the  use  of  bronze  began  to  be  supplemented  to  some 
extent  by  the  introduction  of  iron.     Caesar,  tells  us  that  rings  of  it 
were  employed  for  money;   if  so,  it  was  probably  by  tribes  in 
the  north  of  the  island,  for  the  men  of  the  south  had  not  only 
gold  and  silver  coins  at  that  date,  but  what  is  more,  they  had 
learned  how  to  counterfeit  them. 

Such  were  the  inhabitants  the  Romans  found  when  they  in- 
vaded Britain  in  the  first  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Rude 
as  these  people  seemed  to  Caesar  as  he  met  them  in  battle  array 
clad  in  skins,  with  their  faces  stained  with  the  deep  blue  dye 
of  the  woad  plant,  yet  they  proved  no  unworthy  foamen  even 
for  his  veteran  troops. 

23.  The  Religion  of  the  Primitive  Britons ;  the  Druids.  — 

We  have  seen  that  they  held  some  dim  faith  in  an  overrul- 
ing power  and  in  a  life  beyond  the  grave,  since  they  offered 
human  sacrifices  to  the  one?  and  buried  the  warrior's  spear  with 


IO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

him,  that  he  might  be  provided  for  the  other.  Furthermore,  the 
Britons  when  Caesar  invaded  the  country  had  a  regularly  organ- 
ized priesthood,  the  Druids,  who  appear  to  have  worshipped  the 
heavenly  bodies.  They  dwelt  in  the  depths  of  the  forests,  and 
venerated  the  oak  and  the  mistletoe.  There  in  the  gloom  and 
secrecy  of  the  woods  they  raised  their  altars ;  there,  too,  they 
offered  up  criminals  to  propitiate  their  gods.  They  acted  not 
only  as  interpreters  of  the  divine  will,  but  they  held  the  sav- 
age passions  of  the  people  in  check,  and  tamed  them  as  wild 
beasts  are  tamed.  Besides  this,  they  were  the  repositories  of 
tradition,  custom,  and  law.  They  were  also  prophets,  judges, 
and  teachers.  Lucan,  the  Roman  poet,  declared  he  envied  them 
their  belief  in  the  indestructibility  of  the  soul,  since  it  banished 
that  greatest  of  all  fears,  the  fear  of  death.  Caesar  tells  us  that 
"  they  did  much  inquire,  and  hand  down  to  the  youth  concerning 
the  stars  and  their  motions,  concerning  the  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  concerning  the  n  iture  of  things,  and  the  might  and  power 
of  the  immortal  godo."1  They  did  more  ;  for  they  not  only  trans- 
mitted their  beliefs  and  hopes  from  generation  to  generation,  but 
they  gave  them  architectural  power  and  permanence  in  the  mas- 
sive columns  of  hewn  stone,  which  they  raised  in  that  temple  open 
to  the  sky,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  on  Salisbury 
Plain.  There,  on  one  of  those  fallen  blocks,  Carlyle  and  Emerson 
sat  and  discussed  the  great  questions  of  the  Druid  philosophy 
when  they  made  their  pilgrimage  to  Stonehenge2  more  than 
forty  years  ago. 

24.   What  we  owe  to  Primitive  or  Prehistoric  Man. — The 

1  See  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  Books  IV.  and  V.  (for  these  and  other  references, 
see  list  of  books  in  Appendix). 

2  Stonehenge  (literally,  the  "  Hanging  Stones  ") :   this  is  generally  considered 
to  be  the  remains  of  a  Druid  temple.     It  is  situated  on  a  plain  near  Salisbury,  Wilt- 
shire, in  the  south  of  England.     It  consists  of  a  number  of  immense  upright  stones 
arranged  in  two  circles,  an  outer  and  an  inner,  with  a  row  of  flat  stones  partly  con- 
necting them  at  the  top.    The  temple  had  no  roof.    An  excellent  description  of  it 
may  be  found  in  R.  W.  Emerson's  English  Traits, 


BRITAIN    BEFORE   WRITTEN    HISTORY    BEGINS.  1 1 

Romans,  indeed,  looked  down  upon  these  people  as  barbarians ; 
yet  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  all  the  progress  which  civili- 
zation has  since  made  is  built  on  the  foundations  which  they  slowly 
and  painfully  laid  during  unknown  centuries  of  toil  and  strife.  It 
is  to  them  that  we  owe  the  taming  of  the  dog,  horse,  and  other 
domestic  animals,  the  first  working  of  metals,  the  beginning  of 
agriculture  and  mining,  and  the  establishment  of  many  salutary 
customs  which  help  not  a  little  to  bind  society  together  to-day. 


12  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


II. 


"  Father  Neptune  one  day  to  Dame  Freedom  did  say, 
'  If  ever  I  lived  upon  dry  land, 
The  spot  I  should  hit  on  would  be  little  Britain.' 
Says  Freedom,  '  Why,  that's  my  own  island.' 
O,  'tis  a  snug  little  island, 
A  right  little,  tight  little  island  ! 
Search  the  world  round,  none  can  be  found 
So  happy  as  this  little  island."  T.  DlBDlN. 


THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF    ENGLAND    IN    RELATION    TO 
ITS  HISTORY.1 

25.  Geography    and    History. — As    material    surroundings 
strongly  influence  individual  life,  so  the  physical  features  —  situa- 
tion, surface,  and  climate  —  of  a  country  have  a  marked  effect  on 
its  people  and  its  history. 

26.  The  Island  Form;  Race  Settlements  —  the  Romans. — 

The  insular  form  of  Britain  gave  it  a  certain  advantage  over  the 
continent  during  the  age  when  Rome  was  subjugating  the  barba- 
rians of  Northern  and  Western  Europe.  As  their  invasions  could 
only  be  by  sea,  they  were  necessarily  on  a  comparatively  small 
scale.  This  perhaps  is  one  reason  why  the  Romans  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  establishing  their  language  and  laws  in  the  island.  They 
conquered  and  held  it  for  centuries,  but  they  never  destroyed  its 
individuality;  they  never  Latinized  it  as  they  did  France  and 
Spain. 

1  As  this  section  necessarily  contains  references  to  events  in  the  later  periods  of 
English  history,  it  may  be  advantageously  reviewed  after  the  pupil  has  reached  a 
somewhat  advanced  stage  in  the  course. 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ENGLAND.  13 

27.  The  Saxons.     In  like  manner,  when  the  power  of  Rome 
fell  and  the  northern  tribes  overran  and  took  possession  of  the 
Empire,  they  were  in  a  measure  shut  out  from  Britain.    Hence  the 
Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes  could  not  pour  down  upon  it  in  count- 
less hordes,  but  only  by  successive  attacks.     This  had  two  results  : 
first,  the  native  Britons  were  driven  back  only  by  degrees  —  thus 
their  hope  and  courage  were  kept  alive  and  transmitted ;  next, 
the  conquerors  settling  gradually  in  different  sections  built  up  inde- 
pendent kingdoms.     When  in  time  the  whole  country  came  under 
one  sovereignty  the  kingdoms,  which  had  now  become  shires  or 
counties,  retained  through  their  chief  men  an  important  influence 
in  the  government,  thus  preventing  the  royal  power  from  becoming 
absolute. 

28.  The  Danes  and  Normans.  —  In  the  course  of  the  ninth, 
tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries,  the  Danes  invaded  the  island,  got 
possession  of  the  throne,  and  permanently  established  themselves 
in  the  northern  half  of  England,  as  the  country  was  then  called. 
They  could  not  come,  however,  with  such  overwhelming  force  as 
either  to  exterminate  or  drive  out  the  English,  but  were  compelled 
to  unite  with  them,  as  the  Normans  did  later  in  their  conquest 
under  Wil'lam  of  Normandy.       Hence,  every  conquest  of  the 
island  ended  in  a  compromise,  and  no  one  race  got  complete  pre- 
dominance.    Eventually  all  mingled  and  became  one  people. 

29.  Earliest  Names :  Celtic.  —  The  steps  of  English  history  may 
be  traced  to  a  considerable  extent  by  geographical  names.    Thus 
the  names  of  most  of  the  prominent  natural  features,  the  hills,  and 
especially  the  streams,  are  British  or  Celtic,  carrying  us  back  to 
the  Bronze  Age,  and  perhaps  even  earlier.      Familiar  examples 
of  this  are  found  in  the  name,  Malvern  Hills,  and  in  the  word 
Avon  ("the  water"),  which  is  repeated  many  times  in  England 
and  Wales. 

30.  Roman  Names. — The  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  is 
shown  by  the  names  ending  in  "  coster,"  or  "  Chester  "  (a  corrup- 
tion of  castra,  a  camp).     Thus  Leicester,  Worcester,  Dorches- 


14  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ter,  Colchester,  Chester,  indicate   that  these  places  were  walled 
towns  and  military  stations. 

31.  Saxon  Names .  —  On  the  other  hand,  the  names  of  many  of 
the  great  political  divisions,  especially  in  the  south  and  east  of 
England,  mark  the  Saxon  settlements,  such  as  Essex  (the  East 
Saxons),  Sussex  (the  South  Saxons),  Middlesex  (the  Middle  or 
Central  Saxons).      In  the  same  way  the  settlement  of  the  two 
divisions  of  the  Angles  on  the  coast  is  indicated  by  the  names 
Norfolk  (the  North  folk)  and  Suffolk  (the  South  folk)1. 

32.  Danish  Names. — The   conquests  and   settlements  of  the 
Danes  are  readily  traced  by  the  Danish  termination  "  by "  (an 
abode  or  town),  as  in  Derby,  Rugby,  Grimsby.     Names  of  places 
so   ending,  which    may  be    counted    by   hundreds,   occur  with 
scarce   an  exception  north  of  London.     They  date  back   to  the 
time  when  Alfred  made  the   treaty  of  Wedmore,2  by  which   the 
Danes  agreed    to    confine   themselves   to   the   northern   half  of 
the  country. 

33.  Norman  Names.  — The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Nor- 
mans created  but  few  new  names.     These,  as  in  the  case  of  Rich- 
mond and  Beaumont,  generally  show  where  the  invading  race  built 
a  castle  or  an  abbey,  or  where,  as  in  Montgomeryshire,  they  con- 
quered and  held  a  district  in  Wales. 

While  each  new  invasion  left  its  mark  on  the  country,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  greater  part  of  the  names  of  counties  and  towns 
are  of  Roman,  Saxon,  or  Danish  origin ;  so  that,  with  some  few 
and  comparatively  unimportant  exceptions,  the  map  of  England 
remains  to-day  in  this  respect  what  those  races  made  it  more  than 
a  thousand  years  ago. 

34.  Eastern  and  Western  Britain.  —  As   the  southern  and 
eastern  coasts  of  Britain  were  in  most  direct  communication  with 
the  continent  and. were  first  settled,  they  continued  until  modern 

1  See  Map  No.  7,  £age  44. 

8  Treaty  of  Wedmore.    See  Map  No.  6,  page  42. 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ENGLAND.  15 

times  to  be  the  wealthiest,  most  civilized,  and  progressive  part  of 
the  island.  Much  of  the  western  portion  is  a  rough,  wild  country. 
To  it  the  East  Britons  retreated,  keeping  their  primitive  customs 
and  language,  as  in  Wales  and  Cornwall.  In  all  the  great  move- 
ments of  religious  or  political  reform,  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  we  find  the  people  of  the  eastern  half  of  the 
island  on  the  side  of  a  larger  measure  of  liberty ;  while  those  of 
the  western  half,  were  in  favor  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  king 
and  the  church. 

35.  The  Channel  in  English  History.  —  The  value  of  the  Chan- 
nel to  England,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  in  its  early  his- 
tory, may  be  traced  down  to  our  own  day. 

In  1264,  when  Simon  de  Montfort  was  endeavoring  to  secure 
parliamentary  representation  for  the  people,  the  king  (Henry  III.) 
sought  help  from  France.  A  fleet  was  got  ready  to  invade  the 
country  and  support  him,  but  owing  to  unfavorable  weather  it  was 
not  able  to  sail  in  season,  and  Henry  was  obliged  to  concede  the 
demands  made  for  reform.1 

Again,  at  the  time  of  the  threatened  attack  by  the  Spanish 
Armada,  when  the  tempest  had  dispersed  the  enemy's  fleet  and 
wrecked  many  of  its  vessels,  leaving  only  a  few  to  creep  back, 
crippled  and  disheartened,  to  the  ports  whence  they  had  so 
proudly  sailed,  Elizabeth  fully  recognized  the  value  of  the  "  ocean- 
wall  "  to  her  dominions. 

So  a  recent  French  writer,2  speaking  of  Napoleon's  intended 
expedition,  which  was  postponed  and  ultimately  abandoned  on 
account  of  a  sudden  and  long-continued  storm,  says,  "A  few 
leagues  of  sea  saved  England  from  being  forced  to  engage  in  a 
war,  which,  if  it  had  not  entirely  trodden  civilization  under  foot, 
would  have  certainly  crippled  it  for  a  whole  generation."  Finally, 
to  quote  the  words  of  Prof.  Goldwin  Smith,  "  The  English  Channel, 
by  exempting  England  from  keeping  up  a  large-  standing  army 

l  Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  401. 
a  Madame  de  R£musat. 


l6  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

[though  it  has  compelled  her  to  maintain  a  powerful  and  expen- 
sive navy],  has  preserved  her  from  military  despotism,  and  enabled 
her  to  move  steadily  forward  in  the  path  of  political  progress." 

36.  Climate. — With  regard  to  the  climate  of  England,  —  its 
insular  form,  geographical  position,  and  especially  its  exposure  to 
the  warm  currents  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  give  it  a  mild  temperature 
particularly  favorable  to  the  full  and  healthy  development  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  life.      Nowhere  is  found  greater  vigor  or 
longevity.      Charles  II.  said  that  he  was  convinced  that  there 
was  not  a  country  in  the  world  where  one  could  spend  so  much 
time  out  of  doors  comfortably  as  in  England ;  and  he  might  have 
added  that  the  people  fully  appreciate  this  fact  and  habitually 
avail  themselves  of  it. 

37.  Industrial  Division  of    England. — From  an  industrial 
and  historical  point  of  view,  the  country  falls  into  two  divisions. 
Let  a  line  be  drawn  from  Whitby,  on   the  northeast  coast,  to 
Leicester,   in   the   midlands,   and    thence   to    Exmouth,   on   the 
southwest  coast.1     On   the  upper  or  northwest  side  of  that  line 
will  lie  the  coal  and  iron,  which  constitute  the  greater  part  of 
the  mineral  wealth  and  manufacturing  industry  of  England ;  and 
also  all  the  large  places  except  London.     On  the  lower  or  south- 
east side  of  it  will  be  a  comparatively  level  surface  of  rich  agri- 
cultural land,  and  most  of  the  fine  old  cathedral  cities2  with  their 
historic  associations ;  in  a  word,  the  England  of  the  past  as  con- 
trasted with  modern  and  democratic  England,  that  part  which  has 
grown  up  since  the  introduction  of  steam. 

38.  Commercial  Situation  of  England.  — Finally,  the  position 
of  England  with  respect  to  commerce  is  worthy  of  note.     It  is  not 
only  possessed  of  a  great  number  of  excellent  harbors,  but  it  is 
situated  in  the  most  extensively  navigated  of  the  oceans,  between 
the  two  continents  having  the  highest  civilization  and  the  most 

1  Whitby,  Yorkshire ;  Exmouth,  near  Exeter,  Devonshire. 

2  In  England  the  cathedral  towns  only  are  called  cities. 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  ENGLAND.  17 

constant  intercourse.  Next,  a  glance  at  the  map l  will  show  that 
geographically  England  is  located  at  about  the  centre  of  the  land 
masses  of  the  globe.  It  is  evident  that  an  island  so  placed  stands 
in  the  most  favorable  position  for  easy  and  rapid  communication 
with  every  quarter  of  the  world.  On  this  account  England  has 
been  able  to  attain  and  maintain  the  highest  rank  among  maritime 
and  commercial  powers. 

It  is  true  that  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  in  1869,  the 
trade  with  the  Indies  and  China  has  changed.  Many  cargoes  of 
teas,  silks,  and  spices,  which  formerly  went  to  London,  Liverpool, 
or  Southampton,  and  were  thence  reshipped  to  different  countries 
of  Europe,  now  pass  by  other  channels  direct  to  the  consumer. 
But  aside  from  this,  England  still  retains  her  supremacy  as  the 
great  carrier  and  distributer  of  the  productions  of  the  earth  —  a 
fact  which  has  had  and  must  continue  to  have  a  decided  influence 
on  her  history  and  on  her  relations  with  other  nations,  both  in 
peace  and  war. 

1  See  Maps  Nos.  n  and  14,  pages  186,  382. 


1 8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


III. 


"  Force  and  Right  rule  the  world  :    Force,  till  Right  is  ready." 

JOUBERT. 


ROMAN   BRITAIN,  55  B.C.     43-410  A.D. 
A   CIVILIZATION   WHICH    DID   NOT  CIVILIZE. 

39.  Europe  at  the  Time  of  Caesar's  Invasion  of  Britain.  — 

Before  considering  the  Roman  invasion  of  Britain  let  us  take  a 
glance  at  the  condition  of  Europe.  We  have  seen  that  the  Celtic 
tribes  of  the  island,  like  those  of  Gaul  (France),  were  not  mere 
savages.  On  the  contrary,  we  know  that  they  had  taken  more 
than  one  important  step  in  the  path  of  progress  ;  still,  the  advance 
should  not  be  overrated.  For,  north  of  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, there  was  no  real  civilization.  Whatever  gain  the  men 
of  the  Bronze  Age  had  made,  it  was  nothing  compared  to  what 
they  had  yet  to  acquire.  They  had  neither  organized  legislatures, 
written  codes  of  law,  effectively  trained  armies,  nor  extensive  com- 
merce. They  had  no  great  cities,  grand  architecture,  literature, 
painting,  music,  or  sculpture.  Finally,  they  had  no  illustrious  and 
imperishable  names.  All  these  belonged  to  the  Republic  of 
Rome,  or  to  the  countries  to  the  south  and  east,  which  the  arms 
of  Rome  had  conquered. 

40.  Caesar's  Campaigns.  — Such  was  the  state  of  Europe  when 
Julius  Caesar,  who  was  governor  of  Gaul,  but  who  aspired  to  be 
ruler  of  the  world,  set  out  on  his  first  campaign  against  the  tribes 
north  of  the  Alps.     (58  B.C.) 

In  undertaking  the  war  he  had  three  objects  in  view :  first,  he 
wished  to  crush  the  power  of  those  restless  hordes  that  threatened 
the  safety,  not  only  of  the  Roman  provinces,  but  of  the  Republic 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  1 9 

itself.  Next,  he  sought  military  fame  as  a  stepping-stone  to 
supreme  political  power.  Lastly,  he  wanted  money  to  maintain 
his  army  and  to  bribe  the  party  leaders  of  Rome.  To  this  end 
every  tribe  which  he  conquered  would  be  forced  to  pay  him 
tribute  in  cash  or  slaves. 

41 .  Caesar  reaches  Boulogne ;   resolves  to  cross  to  Britain. 

—  In  three  years  Csesar  had  subjugated  the  enemy  in  a  succes- 
sion of  victories,  and  Europe  lay  virtually  helpless  at  his  feet. 
Late  in  the  summer  of  55  B.C.  he  reached  that  part  of  the  coast 
of  Gaul  where  Boulogne  is  now  situated,  opposite  which  one  may 
see  on  a  clear  day  the  gleaming  chalk  cliffs  of  Dover,  so  vividly 
described  in  Shakespeare's  "Lear."  While  encamped  on  the  shore 
he  "  resolved,"  he  says,  "  to  pass  over  into  Britain,  having  had 
trustworthy  information  that  in  all  his  wars  with  the  Gauls  the 
enemies  of  the  Roman  Commonwealth  had  constantly  received 
help  from  thence."1 

42.  Britain  not  certainly  known  to  be  an  Island.  —  It  was 

not  known  then  with  certainty  that  Britain  was  an  island.  Many 
confused  reports  had  been  circulated  respecting  that  strange  land 
in  the  Atlantic  on  which  only  a  few  adventurous  traders  had  ever 
set  foot.  It  was  spoken  of  in  literature  as  "another  world,"  or,  as 
Plutarch  called  it,  "a  country  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  habitable 
globe."2  To  that  other  world  the  Roman  general,  impelled  by 
ambition,  by  curiosity,  by  desire  of  vengeance,  and  by  love  of  gain, 
determined  to  go. 

43.  Caesar's  First  Invasion,  55  B.C.  —  Embarking  with  a  force 
of  between  eight  and  ten  thousand  men 3  in  eighty  small  vessels, 
Csesar  crossed  the  Channel  and  landed  not  far  from  Dover,  where 
he  overcame  the  Britons,  who  made  a  desperate  resistance.     After 

1  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  Book  IV. 

2  Plutarch's  Lives  (Julius  Caesar). 

8  Caesar  is  supposed  to  have  sailed  about  the  25th  of  August,  55  B.C.  His 
force  consisted  of  two  legions,  the  yth  and  loth.  A  legion  varied  at  different  times 
from  3000  foot  and  300  horse  soldiers  to  6000  foot  and  400  horse, 


2O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

a  stay  of  a  few  weeks,  during  which  he  did  not  leave  the  coast,  he 
returned  to  Gaul. 

44.  Second  Invasion,  54  B.C. — The  next  year,  a  little  ear- 
lier in  the  season,  Caesar  made  a  second  invasion  with  a  much 
larger  force,  and  penetrated  the  country  to  a  short  distance  north 
of  the  Thames.     Before  the  September  gales  set  in,  he  re-em- 
barked for  the  continent,  never  to  return.     The  total  result  of  his 
two  expeditions  was,  a  number  of  natives,  carried  as  hostages  to 
Rome,  a  long  train  of  captives  destined  to  be  sold  in  the  slave- 
markets,  and  some  promises  of  tribute  which  were  never  fulfilled. 
Tacitus  remarks,  "  He  did  not  conquer  Britain ;  he  only  showed 
it  to  the  Romans." 

Yet  so  powerful  was  Caesar's  influence,  that  his  invasion  was 
spoken  of  as  a  splendid  victory,  and  the  Roman  Senate  ordered  a 
thanksgiving  of  twenty  days,  in  gratitude  to  the  gods  and  in  honor 
of  the  achievement. 

45.  Third  Invasion  of  Britain,  43  A.D.  —  For  nearly  a  hun- 
dred years  no  further  attempt   was  made,  but   in  43  A.D.,  after 
Rome  had  become  a  monarchy,  the  Emperor  Claudius  ordered  a 
third  invasion  of  Britain,  in  which  he  himself  took  part. 

This  was  successful,  and  after  nine  years  of  fighting,  the  Roman 
forces  overcame  Caractacus,  the  leader  of  the  Britons. 

46.  Caractacus  carried  Captive  to  Rome.  — In  company  with 
many  prisoners,  Caractacus  was  taken  in  chains  to  Rome.     Alone  of 
all  the  captives,  he  refused  to  beg  for  life  or  liberty.     "  Can  it  be 
possible,"  said  he,  as  he  was  led  through  the  streets,  "that  men 
who  live  in  such  palaces  as  these  envy  us  our  wretched  hovels  !"] 
"  It  was  the  dignity  of  the  man,  even  in  ruins,"  says  Tacitus, 
"  which  saved  him."     The  Emperor,  struck  with  his  bearing  and 
his  speech,  ordered  him  to  be  set  free. 

47.  The  First  Roman  Colony  planted  in  Britain.  — Meanwhile 
the  armies  of  the  Empire  had  firmly  established  themselves  in  the 

l  Tacitus,  Annals. 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  21 

southeastern  part  of  the  island.  There  they  formed  the  colony  of 
Camulodunum,  the  modern  Colchester.  There,  too,  they  built  a 
temple  and  set  up  the  statue  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  which  the 
soldiers  worshipped,  both  as  a  protecting  god  and  as  a  representa- 
tive of  the  Roman  state. 

48.  Llyn-din.1  —  The  army  had  also  conquered  other  places, 
among  which  was  a  little  native  settlement  on  one  of  the  broadest 
parts  of  the  Thames.     It  consisted  of  a  few  miserable  huts  and  a 
row  of  entrenched  cattle-pens.     This  was  called  in  the  Celtic  or 
British  tongue  Llyn-din  or  the  Fort-on-the-lake,  a  word  which,  pro- 
nounced with  difficulty  by  Roman  lips,  became  that  name  which 
the  world  now  knows  wherever  ships  sail,  trade  reaches,  or  his- 
tory is  read,  —  London. 

49.  Expedition  against  the  Druids.  —  But  in  order  to  complete 
the  conquest  of  the  country,  the  Roman  generals  saw  that  it  would 
be  necessary  to  crush  the  power  of  the  Druids,  since  their  passion- 
ate exhortations  kept  patriotism  alive.     The  island  of  Mona,  now 
Anglesea,  off  the  coast  of  Wales,  was  the  stronghold  to  which  the 
Druids  had  retreated.      As  the  Roman  soldiers  approached  to 
attack  them,  they  beheld  the  priests  and  women  standing  on  the 
shore,  with  uplifted  hands,  uttering  "  dreadful  prayers  and  impreca- 
tions."    For  a  moment  they  hesitated,  then  urged  by  their  gen- 
eral, they  rushed  upon  them,  cut  them  to  pieces,  levelled  their 
consecrated  groves  to  the  ground,  and  cast  the  bodies  of  the 
Druids  into  their  own  sacred  fires.      From  this  blow,  Druidism 
as  an  organized  faith  never  recovered,  though  traces  of  its  reli- 
gious rites  still  survive  in  the  use  of  the  mistletoe  at  Christmas 
and  in  May-day  festivals. 

50.  Revolt  of  Boadicea.  —  Still  the  power  of  the  Latin  legions 
was  only  partly  established,  for  while  Suetonius  was  absent  with 
his  troops  at  Mona,  a  formidable  revolt  had  broken  out  in  the 
east.     The   cause   of  the  insurrection  was  Roman  rapacity  and 
cruelty.     A  native  chief,  Prasutagus,  in  order  to  secure  half  of  his 

l  Llyn-din  (lin-din). 


22  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

property  to  his  family  at  his  death,  left  it  to  be  equally  divided 
between  his  daughters  and  the  Emperor ;  but  the  governor  of  the 
district,  under  the  pretext  that  his  widow  Boadicea  had  con- 
cealed part  of  the  property,  seized  the  whole.  Boadicea  pro- 
tested. To  punish  her  presumption  she  was  stripped,  bound,  and 
scourged  as  a  slave,  and  her  daughters  given  up  to  still  more 
brutal  and  infamous  treatment.  Maddened  by  th*300  outrages, 
Boadicea  roused  the  tribes  by  her  appeals.  They  fell  upon  Lon- 
don and  other  cities,  burned  them  to  the  ground,  and  slaughtered 
many  thousand  inhabitants.  For  a  time  it  looked  as  though  the 
whole  country  would  be  restored  to  the  Britons ;  but  Suetonius 
heard  of  the  disaster,  hurried  from  the  north,  and  fought  a  final 
battle,  so  tradition  says,  on  ground  within  sight  of  where  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  now  stands.  The  Roman  general  gained  a  com- 
plete victory,  and  Boadicea,  the  Cleopatra  of  the  North,  as  she 
has  been  called,  took  her  own  life,  rather  than,  like  the  Egyptian 
queen,  fall  into  the  hands  of  her  conquerors.  She  died,  let  us 
trust,  as  the  poet  has  represented,  animated  by  the  prophecy  of 
the  Druid  priest  that, — 

"  Rome  shall  perish  —  write  that  word 
In  the  blood  that  she  has  spilt ;  — • 
Perish,  hopeless  and  abhorred, 
Deep  in  ruin,  as  in  guilt."  1 

51.  Christianity  introduced  into  Britain. — Perhaps  it  was 
not  long  after  this  that  Christianity  made  its  way  to  Britain ;  if  so, 
it  crept  in  so  silently  that  nothing  certain  can  be  learned  of  its 
advent.  Our  only  record  concerning  it  is  found  in  monkish 
chronicles  filled  with  bushels  of  legendary  chaff,  from  which  a  feu- 
grains  of  historic  truth  may  be  here  and  there  picked  out.  The 
first  church,  it  is  said,  was  built  at  Glastonbury.2  It  was  a  long, 
shed-like  structure  of  wicker-work.  "  Here,"  says  Fuller,  "  the 
converts  watched,  fasted,  preached,  and  prayed,  having  high  medi- 
tations under  a  low  roof  and  large  hearts  within  narrow  walls." 

l  Cowper,  Boadicea,  2  Glastonbury,  Somersetshire. 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  23 

Later  there  may  have  been  more  substantial  edifices  erected  at 
Canterbury  by  the  British  Christians,  but  at  what  date,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say.  At  first,  no  notice  was  taken  of  the  new  religion.  It 
was  the  faith  of  the  poor  and  the  obscure,  hence  the  Roman  gen- 
erals regarded  it  with  contempt ;  but  as  it  continued  to  spread,  it 
caused  alarm.  The  Roman  Emperor  was  not  only  the  head  of  the 
state,  but  ^ifr  head  of  religion  as  well.  He  represented  the  power 
of  God  on  earth  :  to  him  every  knee  must  bow ;  but  the  Christian 
refused  this  homage.  He  put  Christ  first ;  for  that  reason  he  was 
dangerous  to  the  state  :  if  he  was  not  already  a  traitor  and  rebel, 
he  was  suspected  to  be  on  the  verge  of  becoming  both. 

52.  Persecution  of  British  Christians ;  St.  Alban. — Toward  the 
last  of  the  third  century  the  Roman  Emperor  Diocletian  resolved 
to  root  out  this  pernicious  belief.     He  began  a  course  of  system- 
atic  persecution  which  extended  to  every  part  of  the   Empire, 
including  Britain.     The  first  martyr  was  Alban.     He  refused  to 
sacrifice  to  the  Roman  deities,  and  was  beheaded.     "  But  he  who 
gave  the  wicked  stroke,"  says  Bede,1  with   childlike   simplicity, 
"  was  not  permitted  to  rejoice  over  the  deed,  for  his  eyes  dropped 
out  upon  the  ground  together  with  the  blessed  martyr's  head." 
Five  hundred  years  later  the  abbey  of  St.  Albans2  rose  on  the  spot 
to  commemorate  him  who  had  fallen  there,  and  on  his  account 
that  abbey  stood  superior  to  all  others  in  power  and  privilege. 

53.  Agricola  explores  the  Coast  and  builds  a  Line  of  Forts.  — 

In  78  A.D.  Agricola,  a  wise  and  equitable  ruler,  became  gov- 
ernor of  the  country.  His  fleets  explored  the  coast,  and  first  dis- 
covered Britain  to  be  an  island.  He  gradually  extended  the  limits 
of  the  government,  and,  in  order  to  prevent  invasion  from  the 
north,  he  built  a  line  of  forts  across  Caledonia,  or  Scotland,  from 
the  river  Firth  to  the  Clyde. 

54.  The  Romans  clear  and  cultivate  the  Country.  —  From  this 
date  the  power  of  Rome  was  finally  fixed.     During  the  period  of 

1  Bede.  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Britain,  completed  about  the  year  731. 

2  St.  Albans,  Hertfordshire,  about  twenty  miles  northwest  of  London. 


24  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

three  hundred  years  which  follows,  the  entire  surface  of  the  coun- 
try underwent  a  great  change.  Forests  were  cleared,  marshes 
drained,  waste  lands  reclaimed,  rivers  banked  in  and  bridged,  and 
the  soil  made  so  productive  that  Britain  became  known  in  Rome 
as  the  most  important  grain-producing  and  grain-exporting  prov- 
ince in  the  Empire. 

55.  Roman  Cities;  York. — Where  the   Britons  had  had  a 
humble  village  enclosed  by  a  ditch,  with  felled  trees,  to  protect  it, 
there  rose  such  walled  towns  as  Chester,  Lincoln,  London,  and 
York,  with  some  two  score  more,  most  of  which  have  continued 
to  be  centres  of  population  ever  since.     Of  these,  London  early 
became  the  commercial  metropolis,  while  York  was  acknowledged 
to  be  both  the  military  and  civil  capital  of  the  country.     There 
the  Sixth  Legion  was  stationed.     It  was  the  most  noted  body  of 
troops   in   the   Roman   army,   and   was   called    the    "Victorious 
Legion."     It  remained  there  for  upward  of  three  hundred  years. 
There,  too,  the  governor  resided  and  administered  justice.     For 
these  reasons  York  got  the  name  of  "another  Rome."     It  was 
defended  by  walls  flanked  with  towers,  some  of  which  are  still 
standing.     It  had  numerous  temples  and  public  buildings,  such  as 
befitted  the  first  city  of  Britain.     There,  also,  an  event  occurred 
in  the  fourth  century  which  made  an  indelible  mark  on  the  history 
of  mankind.     For  at  York,  Constantine,  the  subsequent  founder  of 
Constantinople,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  through   his  influ- 
ence Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of  the  Empire.1 

56.  Roman    System  of   Government ;    Roads.  —  During  the 
Roman   possession   of  Britain   the   country  was   differently  gov- 
erned at  different  periods,  but  eventually  it  was  divided  into  five 
provinces.     These  were  intersected  by  a  magnificent  system  of 
paved  roads  running  in  direct  lines  from  city  to  city,  and  having 
London  as  a  common  centre.     Across  the  Strait  of  Dover,  they 
connected  .with   a   similar  system   of  roads   throughout  France, 

1  Constantine  was  the  first  Christian  emperor  of  Rome.    The  preceding  emperors 
had  generally  persecuted  the  Christians. 


No.    3. 

ROMAN    BRITAIN. 


O  C  E  A  N  U  S 
HIKERN IGU S 

(Irish  Sea) 

MONA  I. 


0  c  (The    Channel^ 


To  face  page   24. 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  25 

Spain,  and  Italy,  which  terminated  at  Rome.  Over  these  roads 
bodies  of  troops  could  be  rapidly  marched  to  any  needed  point, 
and  by  them  officers  of  state  mounted  on  relays  of  fleet  horses 
could  pass  from  one  end  of  the  Empire  to  the  other  in  a  few  days' 
time.  So  skilfully  and  substantially  were  these  highways  con- 
structed, that  modern  engineers  have  been  glad  to  adopt  them  as 
a  basis  for  their  work,  and  the  four  leading  Roman  roads1  continue 
to  be  the  foundation,  not  only  of  numerous  turnpikes  in  different 
parts  of  England,  but  also  of  several  of  the  great  railway  lines,  espe- 
cially those  from  London  to  Chester  and  from  London  to  York. 

57.  Roman  Forts  and  Walls.  —  Next  in  importance  to  the 
roads  were  the  fortifications.     In  addition  to  those  which  Agricola 
had  built,  later  rulers   constructed  a  wall  of  solid   masonry  en- 
tirely across  the  country  from  the  shore  of  the  North  to  that  of 
the  Irish  Sea.     This  wall,  which  was  about  seventy-five  miles  south 
of  Agricola's  work,  was  strengthened  by  a  deep  ditch  and  a  ram- 
part of  earth.     It  was  further  defended  by  castles  built  at  regular 
intervals  of  one  mile.     These  were  of  stone,  and  from  sixty  to 
seventy  feet  square.     Between  them  were  stone  turrets  or  watch- 
towers  which  were  used  as  sentry-boxes  ;  while  at  every  fourth  mile 
there  was  a  fort,  covering  from  three  to  six  acres,  occupied  by  a 
large  body  of  troops. 

58.  Defences  against  Saxon  Pirates.  —  But  the  northern  tribes 
were  not  the  only  ones  to  be  guarded  against ;  bands  of  pirates 
prowled  along  the  east  and  south  coasts,  burning,  plundering,  and 
kidnapping.     These  marauders  came  from  Denmark  and  the  adja- 
cent countries.     The  Britons  and  Romans  called  them  Saxons, 
a  most  significant  name  if,  as  is  generally  supposed,  it  refers  to 
the  short,  stout  knives  which  made  them  a  terror  to  every  land  on 
which  they  set  foot.     To  repel  them  a  strong  chain  of  forts  was 
erected  on  the  coast,  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Black- 
water,  in  Essex,  to  Portsmouth  on  the  south. 

1  The  four  chief  roads  were :    i.  Watling  Street;    2.  I cknield  Street ;   3.  Ermine 
Street ;  and  4.  The  Fosse  Way.     See  Map  No.  3,  page  24. 


26  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Of  these  great  works,  cities,  walls,  and  fortifications,  though  by 
far  the  greater  part  have  perished,  yet  enough  still  remain  to  jus- 
tify the  statement  that  "  outside  of  England  no  such  monuments 
exist  of  the  power  and  military  genius  of  Rome." 

59.  Roman  Civilization  False.  —  Yet  the  whole  fabric  was  as 
hollow  and  false  as  it  was  splendid.     Civilization,  like  truth,  can- 
not be  forced  on  minds  unwilling  or  unable  to  receive  it.     Least  of 
all  can  it  be  forced  by  the  sword's  point  and  the  taskmaster's  lash. 
In  order  to  render  his  victories  on  the  continent  secure,  Csesar 
had  not  hesitated  to  butcher  thousands  of  prisoners  of  war  or  to 
cut  off  the  right  hands  of  the  entire  population  of  a  large  settle- 
ment to  prevent  them  from  rising  in  revolt.     The  policy  pursued 
in  Britain,  though  very  different,  was  equally  heartless  and  equally 
fatal.     There  was  indeed  an  occasional  ruler  who  endeavored  to 
act  justly,  but  such  cases  were  rare.     Galgacus,  a  leader  of  the 
North  Britons,  said  with  truth  of  the  Romans,    "They  give  the 
lying  name  of  Empire  to  robbery  and  slaughter ;  they  make  a  des- 
ert and  call  it  peace." 

60.  The  Mass  of  the  Native  Population  Slaves.  —  It  is  true 
that  the  chief  cities   of  Britain  were   exempt  from  oppression. 
They  elected  their  own  magistrates  and  made  their  own  laws,  but 
they  enjoyed  this  liberty  because  their  inhabitants  were  either 
Roman  soldiers  or  their  allies.    Outside  these  cities  the  great  mass 
of  the  native  population  were  bound  to  the  soil,  while  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  were  absolute  slaves.    Their  work  was  in  the  brick 
fields,  the  quarries,  the  mines,  or  in  the  ploughed  land,  or  the 
forest.     Their  homes  were  wretched  cabins  plastered  with  mud, 
thatched  with  straw,  and  built  on  the  estates  of  masters  who  paid 
no  wages. 

61.  Roman  Villas.  — The  masters  lived  in  stately  villas  adorned 
with  pavements  of  different  colored  marbles  and  beautifully  painted 
walls.      These   country-houses,  oftea   as   large   as   palaces,  were 
warmed  in  winter,  like  our  modern  dwellings,  with  currents  of 
heated  air,  while  in  summer  they  opened  on  terraces  ornamented 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  2"J 

with  vases  and  statuary,  and  on  spacious  gardens  of  fruits  and 
flowers.1 

62.  Roman  Taxation  and  Cruelty.  —  Such  was  the  condition 
of  the  laboring  classes.     Those  who  were  called  free  were  hardly 
better  off,  for  nearly  all  that  they  could  earn  was  swallowed  up  in 
taxes.      The  standing  army  of  Britain,  which  the  people  of  the 
country  had  to  support,  rarely  numbered  less  than  forty  thousand. 
The  population  was  not  only  scanty,  but  it  was  poor.      Every 
farmer  had  to  pay  a  third  of  all  that  his  farm  could  produce,  in 
taxes.     Every  article  that  he  sold  had  also  to  pay  duty,  and  finally 
there  was  a  poll-tax  on  the  man  himself.     On  the  continent  there 
was  a  saying  that  it  was  better  for  a  property-owner  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  savages  than  into  those  of  the  Roman  assessors.     When 
they  went  round,  they  counted  not  only  every  ox  and  sheep,  but 
every  plant,  and  registered  them  as  well  as  the  owners.     "  One 
heard  nothing,"  says  a  writer  of  that  time,  speaking  of  the  days 
when  revenue  was  collected,  "  but  the  sound  of  flogging  and  all 
kinds  of  torture.     The  son  was  compelled  to  inform  against  his 
father,  and  the  wife  against  her  husband.     If  other  means  failed, 
men  were  forced  to  give  evidence  against  themselves  and  were 
assessed  according  to  the  confession  they  made  to  escape  tor- 
ment."2    So  great  was  the  misery  of  the  land  that  it  was  not  an 
uncommon  thing  for  parents  to  destroy  their  children,  rather  than 
let  them  grow  up  to  a  life  of  suffering.     This  vast  system  of  organ- 
ized oppression,  like  all  tyranny,  "  was  not  so  much  an  institution 
as  a  destitution,"  undermining  and  impoverishing  the  country.     It 
lasted  until   time   brought   its   revenge,   and   Rome,  which   had 
crushed  so  many  nations  of  barbarians,  was  in  her  turn  threatened 
with  a  like  fate,  by  bands  of  barbarians  stronger  than  herself. 

63.  The  Romans  compelled    to    abandon  Britain. — When 
Caesar  returned  from  his  victorious  campaigns  in  Gaul  in  the  first 

1  About  one  hundred  of  these  villas  or  country-houses,  chiefly  in  the  South  and 
Southwest  of  England,  have  been  exhumed.    Some  of  them  cover  several  acres. 

2  Lactantius.     See  Elton's  Origins  of  English  History. 


28  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

century  B.C.,  Cicero  exultingly  exclaimed,  "  Now,  let  the  Alps  sink ! 
the  gods  raised  them  to  shelter  Italy  from  the  barbarians  ;  they  are 
no  longer  needed."  For  nearly  five  centuries  that  continued  true ; 
then  the  tribes  of  Northern  Europe  could  no  longer  be  held  back. 
When  the  Roman  emperors  saw  that  the  crisis  had  arrived,  they 
recalled  the  legions  from  Britain.  The  rest  of  the  colonists  soon 
followed.  In  the  year  409  we  find  this  brief  but  expressive  entry 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,1  "After  this  the  Romans  never 
ruled  in  Britain."  A  few  years  later  this  entry  occurs  :  "418.  This 
year  the  Romans  collected  all  the  treasures  in  Britain ;  some  they 
hid  in  the  earth,  so  that  no  one  since  has  been  able  to  find  them, 
and  some  they  carried  with  them  into  Gaul." 

64.  Remains  of  Roman  Civilization.  —  In  the  course  of  the 
next  three  generations  whatever  Roman  civilization  had  accom- 
plished in  the  island,  politically  and  socially,  had  disappeared.  A 
few  words,  indeed,  such  as  "  port "  and  "  street,"  have  come  down 
to  us.  Save  these,  nothing  is  left  but  the  material  shell, —  the 
roads,  forts,  arches,  gateways,  altars,  and  tombs,  which  are  still  to 
be  seen  scattered  throughout  the  land. 

The  soil,  also,  is  full  of  relics  of  the  same  kind.  Twenty  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  London  of  to-day  lie  the  remains  of  the 
London  of  the  Romans.  In  digging  in  the  "city,"2  the  laborer's 
shovel  every  now  and  then  brings  to  light  bits  of  rusted  armor, 
broken  swords,  fragments  of  statuary,  and  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments. So,  likewise,  several  towns,  long  buried  in  the  earth,  and 
the  foundations  of  upwards  of  a  hundred  country-houses,  have  been 
discovered ;  but  these  seem  to  be  all.  If  Rome  left  any  traces 

1  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle :  the  earliest  English  history.  It  was  probably  begun 
in  the  ninth  century,  in  the  reign  of  Alfred.  It  extends,  in  different  copies,  from 
Caesars  invasion  until  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  1154.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  work  was  written  in  Canterbury,  Peterborough,  and  other  monas- 
teries. The  first  part  of  it  is  evidently  based  on  tradition;  but  the  whole  is  of  great 
value,  especially  from  the  time  of  Alfred. 

*  The  "  city"  —that  part  of  London  formerly  enclosed  by  Roman  walls,  together 
with  a  small  outlying  district.  Its  limit  on  the  west  is  the  site  of  Temple  Bar ;  on 
the  east,  the  Tower  of  London. 


ROMAN    BRITAIN.  29 

of  her  literature,  law,  and  methods  of  government,  they  are  so 
doubtful  that  they  serve  only  as  subjects  for  antiquarians  to  wran- 
gle over.1  Were  it  not  for  the  stubborn  endurance  of  ivy-covered 
ruins  like  those  of  Pevensey,  Chester,  and  York,  and  of  that 
gigantic  wall  which  still  stretches  across  the  bleak  moors  of  North- 
umberland, we  might  well  doubt  whether  there  ever  was  a  time 
when  the  Caesars  held  Britain  in  their  relentless  grasp. 

65.  Good  Results  of  the  Roman  Conquest  of  Britain.  — Still,  it 
would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  conquest  and  occupation  of 
the  island  had  no  results  for  good.  Had  Rome  fallen  a  century 
earlier,  the  world  would  have  been  the  loser  by  it,  for  during  that 
century  the  inhabitants  of  Gaul  and  Spain  were  brought  into  closer 
contact  than  ever  with  the  only  power  then  existing  which  could 
teach  them  the  lesson  they  were  prepared  to  learn.  Unlike  the 
Britons,  they  adopted  the  Latin  language  for  their  own ;  they  made 
themselves  acquainted  with  its  literature  and  aided  in  its  preserva- 
tion ;  they  accepted  the  Roman  law  and  the  Roman  idea  of 
government ;  lastly,  they  acknowledged  the  influence  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  and,  with  Constantine's  help,  they  organized  it  on  a 
solid  foundation.  Had  Rome  fallen  a  prey  to  the  invaders  in  318 
instead  of  4io,2  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of  these  results  would  have 
taken  place,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  last  and  most  impor- 
tant of  all  could  not. 

Britain  furnished  Rome  with  abundant  food  supplies,  and 
sent  thousands  of  troops  to  serve  in  the  Roman  armies  on  the 
continent.  Britain  also  supported  the  numerous  colonies  which 
were  constantly  emigrating  to  her  from  Italy,  and  thus  kept  open 
the  lines  of  communication  with  the  mother- country.  By  so  doing 
she  helped  to  maintain  the  circulation  of  the  life-currents  in  the 
remotest  branches  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Because  of  this,  that 

1  Scarth,  Pearson,  Guest,  Elton,  and  Coote  believe  that  Roman  civilization  had 
a  permanent  influence ;  while  Lappenburg,  Stubbs,  Freeman,  Green,  Wright,  and 
Gardiner  deny  it. 

2  Rome  was  plundered  by  the  Goths,  under  Alaric,  in  410.    The  empire  finally 
fell  in  476. 


3O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

empire  was  able  to  resist  the  barbarians  until  the  seeds  of  the  old 
civilization  had  time  to  root  themselves  and  to  spring  up  with 
promise  of  a  new  and  nobler  growth.  In  itself,  then;  though  the 
island  gained  practically  nothing  from  the  Roman  occupation,  yet 
through  it  mankind  was  destined  to  gain  much.  During  these 
centuries  the  story  of  Britain  is  that  which  history  so  often  repeats 
—  a  part  of  Europe  was  sacrificed  that  the  whole  might  not  be 
lost 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS. 


IV. 

The  happy  ages  of  history  are  never  the  productive  ones."  —  HEGEL. 


THE    COMING    OF    THE    SAXONS,    OR    ENGLISH, 
449    A.D. 

THE   BATTLES   OF  THE   TRIBES. —  BRITAIN    BECOMES    ENGLAND. 

66.  Condition  of  the  Britons  after  the  Romans  left  the  Island. 
—  Three  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  Roman  law  and  order  had 
so  completely  tamed  the  fiery  aborigines  of  the  island  that  when 
the  legions  abandoned  it,  the  complaint  of  Gildas,1  "  the  British 
Jeremiah,"  as  Gibbon  calls  him,  may  have  been  literally  true,  when 
he  declared  that  the  Britons  were  no  longer  brave  in  war  or  faith- 
ful in  peace. 

Certainly  their  condition  was  both  precarious  and  perilous. 
On  the  north  they  were  assailed  by  the  Picts,  on  the  northwest  by 
the  Scots,2  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Saxons.  What  was 
perhaps  worst  and  most  dangerous  of  all,  they  quarrelled  among 
themselves  over  points  of  theological  doctrine.  They  had,  in- 
deed, the  love  of  liberty,  but  not  the  spirit  of  unity ;  and  the 
consequence  was,  that  their  enemies,  bursting  in  on  all  sides,  cut 
them  down,  Bede  says,  as  "  reapers  cut  down  ripe  grain." 

67.  Letter  to  Ae'tius.  — At  length  the  chief  men  of  the  country 
joined  in  a  piteous  and  pusillanimous  letter  begging   help  from 

1  Gildas:  a  British  monk,  5i6(?)~57o(?).  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  Saxon 
conquest  of  Britain. 

2  Picts:  ancient  tribes  of  the  North  and  Northeast  of  Scotland ;  Scots:  originally 
inhabitants  of  Ireland,  some  of  whom  settled  in  the  West  of  Scotland,  and  gave 
their  name  to  the  whole  country. 


32  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Rome.  It  was  addressed  as  follows  :  "  To  Aetius,  Consul  *  for 
the  third  time,  the  groans  of  the  Britons  " ;  and  at  the  close  their 
calamities  were  summed  up  in  these  words,  "The  barbarians 
drive  us  to  the  sea,  the  sea  drives  us  back  to  the  barbarians  ; 
between  them  we  are  either  slain  or  drowned."  Aetius,  however, 
was  fighting  the  enemies  of  Rome  at  home,  and  left  the  Britons  to 
shift  for  themselves. 

68.  Vortigern's  Advice.  —  Finally,  in  their  desperation,  they 
adopted  the  advice  of  Vortigern,  a  chief  of  Kent,  who  urged  them 
to  fight  fire  with  fire,  by  inviting  a  band  of  Saxons  to  form  an 
alliance  with  them  against  the  Picts  and  Scots.      The  proposal 
was  very  readily  accepted  by  a  tribe  of  Jutes.     They,  with  the 
Angles  and  Saxons,  occupied  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  or  Den- 
mark, and  the  seacoast  to  the  south  of  it.      All  of  them  were 
known  to  the  Britons  under  the  general  name  of  Saxons. 

69.  Coming   of  the   Jutes. — Gildas   records   their   arrival  in 
characteristic  terms,  saying  that  "  in  449  a  multitude  of  whelps 
came   from  the  lair  of  the  barbaric   lioness,   in  three  keels,  as 
they  call  them."2     We  get  a  good  picture  of  what  they  were 
like  from  the  exultant  song  of  their  countryman,  Beowulf,3  who 
describes   with    pride    "the   dragon-prowed    ships,"   filled   with 
sea-robbers,  armed  with    "  rough-handled  spears  and  swords  of 
bronze,"  which  under  other  leaders  sailed  for  the  shining  coasts 
of  Britain. 

These  three  keels,  or  war-ships,  under  the  command  of  the 
chieftains  Hengist  and  Horsa,  were  destined  to  grow  into  a  king- 
dom. Settling  at  first,  according  to  agreement,  in  the  island  of 

1  Consul  :  originally  one  of  two  chief  magistrates  governing  Rome ;    later  the 
consuls  ruled  over  the  chief  provinces,  and  sometimes  commanded  armies.    Still 
later  they  became  wholly  subject  to  the  emperors,  and  had  little,  if  any,  real  power 
of  their  own. 

2  See  Map  No.  4,  page  34. 

8  Beowulf:  the  hero  of  the  earliest  Anglo-Saxon  or  English  epic  poem.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  it  was  written  on  the  continent  or  in  England.  Some  authorities 
refer  it  to  the  ninth  century,  others  to  the  fifth. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  33 

Thanet.  near  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  Jutes  easily  fulfilled 
their  contract  to  free  the  country  from  the  ravages  of  the  Picts, 
and  quite  as  easily  found  a  pretext  afterward  for  seizing  the 
fairest  portion  of  Kent  for  themselves  and  their  kinsmen  and 
adherents,  who  came,  vulture-like,  in  ever-increasing  multitudes. 

70.  Invasion  by  the   Saxons.  —  The   success   of   the   Jutes 
incited  their  neighbors,  the  Saxons,  who  came  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Ella,  and  Cissa,  his  son,  for  their  share  of  the  spoils.    They 
conquered  a  part  of  the  country  bordering  on  the  Channel,  and, 
settling  there,  gave  it  the  name  of  Sussex,  or  the  country  of  the 
South   Saxons.     We   learn  from  two   sources   how  the  land  was 
wrested  from    the   native   inhabitants.     On  the  one  side  is  the 
account  given  by  the  British  monk  Gildas ;  on  the  other,  that  of 
the  Saxon  or  English  Chronicle.     Both  agree  that  it  was  gained 
by  the  edge  of  the  sword,  with  burning,  pillaging,  massacre,  and 
captivity.     "Some,"  says  Gildas,  "were  caught  in  the  hills  and 
slaughtered ;  others,  worn  out  with  hunger,  gave  themselves  up  to 
lifelong  slavery.     Some  fled  across  the  sea ;  others  trusted  them- 
selves to  the  clefts  of  the  mountains,  to  the  forests,  and  to  the 
rocks   along  the  coast."     By  the   Saxons,  we  are  told  that  the 
Britons  fled  before  them  "  as  from  fire." 

71.  Siege  of  Anderida.  —  Again,  the  Chronicle  tersely  says: 
"  In  490  Ella  and  Cissa  besieged  Anderida  (the  modern  Pevensey)1 
and  put  to  death  all  who  dwelt  there,  so  that  not  a  single  Briton 
remained  alive  in  it."     When,  however,  they  took  a  fortified  town 
like  Anderida,  they  did  not  occupy,  but  abandoned  it.     So  the 
place   stands   to-day,  with   the   exception   of  a  Norman   castle, 
built  there  in  the  eleventh  century,  just  as  the  invaders  left  it. 
Accustomed'  as  they  were  to  a  wild  life,  they  hated  the  restraint 
and  scorned  the  protection  of  stone  walls.     It  was  not  until  after 
many  generations  had  passed  that  they  became  reconciled  to  live 
within   them.     Iri   the   same   spirit,  they  refused   to  appropriate 

1  Pevensey  :  see  coast  of  Sussex,  Map  No.  5,  page  38. 


34  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

anything  which  Rome  had  left.  They  burned  the  villas,  killed  or 
enslaved  the  serfs  who  tilled  the  soil,  and  seized  the  land  to  form 
rough  settlements  of  their  own. 

72.  Settlement  of  Wessex,  Essex,  and  Middlesex.  —  In  this 
way,  after  Sussex  was  established,  bands  came  over  under  Cerdic 
in  495.     They  conquered  a  territory  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  Wessex,  or  the  country  of  the  West  Saxons.     About  the  same 
time,  or  possibly  a  little  later,  we  have  the  settlement  of  other  in- 
vaders in  the  country  north  of  the  Thames,  which  became  known 
as  Essex  and  Middlesex,  or  the  land  of  the  East  and  the  Middle 
Saxons. 

73.  Invasion   by  the  Angles.  —  Finally,  there  came  from   a 
little  corner  south  of  the   peninsula  of  Denmark,  between  the 
Baltic  and  an  arm  of  the  sea  called  the  Sley  (a  region  which  still 
bears  the  name  of  Angeln),  a  tribe  of  Angles,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  all  of  Eastern  Britain  not  already  appropriated.     Event- 
ually they  came  to  have  control  over  the  greater  part  of  the  land, 
and  from  them  all  the  other  tribes  took  the  name  of  Angles,  or 
English. 

74.  Bravery  of  the   Britons.  —  Long  before  this  last  settle- 
ment was  complete,  the    Britons  had  plucked  up  courage,  and 
had,  to  some  extent,  joined  forces  to  save  themselves  from  utter 
extermination.     They  were  naturally  a  brave  people,  and  the  fact 
that  the  Saxon  invasions  cover  a  period  of  more  than  a  hundred 
years  shows  pretty  conclusively  that,  though   the   Britons  were 
weakened  by  Roman  tyranny,  yet  in  the  end  they  fell  back  on 
what  pugilists  call  their  "  second  strength."    They  fought  valiantly 
and  gave  up  the  country  inch  by  inch  only. 

75.  King  Arthur  checks  the  Invaders.  —  In  520,  if  we  may 
trust  tradition,  the  Saxons  received  their  first  decided  check  at 
Badbury,  in  Dorsetshire,  from  that  famous  Arthur,  the  legend  of 
whose  deeds  has  come  down  to  us,  retold  in  Tennyson's  "  Idylls 
of  the  King."     He  met  them  in  their  march  of  insolent  triumph, 


No.    4. 

THE   CONQUEST   OF    BRITAIN    BY   TRIBES    FROM   THE    LOW   OR 
NORTHERN   AND   FLATTER    PARTS  OF  GERMANY. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  BRITAIN 

BY  THE 

LOW  GERMAN  TRIBES 


/'''          ft/pA 

/.£  *  C* 


*     MerciaA||f,U     //>$ 

t*  .^r       >'/ 


(Afterwards  called)   FRANCE 


To  face   page  34. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  35 

and  with  his  irresistible  sword  "  Excalibur  "  and  his  stanch  Welsh 
spearsmen,  proved  to  them,  at  least,  that  he  was  not  a  myth,  but  a 
man,1  able  "  to  break  the  heathen  and  uphold  the  Christ." 

76.  The  Britons  driven  into  the  West. — But  though  tempo- 
rarily brought  to  a  stand,  the  heathen  were  neither  to  be  expelled 
nor  driven  back.     They  had  come  to  stay.     At  last  the  Britons 
were  forced  to  take  refuge  among  the  hills  of  Wales,  where  they 
continued   to   abide    unconquered   and   unconquerable   by  force 
alone.     In  the  light  of  these  events,  it  is  interesting  to  see  that 
that  ancient  stock  never  lost  its  love  of  liberty,  and  that  more  than 
eleven  centuries  later,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  several  of  the  other 
fifty-five  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  American  Independence 
were  either  of  Welsh  birth  or  of  direct  Welsh  descent. 

77.  Gregory  and  the  English  Slaves.  —  The  next  period,  of 
nearly  eighty  years,  until  the  coming  of  Augustine,  is  a  dreary 
record  of  constant  bloodshed.     Out  of  their  very  barbarism,  how- 
ever, a  regenerating  influence  was  to  arise.    In  their  greed  for  gain, 
some  of  the  English  tribes  did  not  hesitate  to  sell  their  own  chil- 
dren into  bondage,  A  number  of  these  slaves  exposed  in  the  Roman 
forum,  attracted  the  attention,  as  he  was  passing,  of  a  monk  named 
Gregory.     Struck   with   the   beauty   of  their   clear,  ruddy  com- 
plexions and  fair  hair,  he  inquired  from  what  country  they  came. 
"  They  are  Angles,"  was  the  dealer's  answer.     "  No,  not  Angtes, 
but  angels,"  answered  the  monk,  and  he  resolved  that,  should  he 
ever  have  the  power,  he  would  send  missionaries  to  convert  a  race 
of  so  much  promise.2 

78.  Coming  of  Augustine,  597.  —  In  590  he  became  the  head 
of  the  Roman  church.    Seven  years  later  he  fulfilled  his  resolution, 
and  sent  Augustine  with  a  band  of  forty  monks-  to  Britain.     They 
landed  on  the  very  spot  where  Hengist  and  Horsa  had  disembarked 

1  The  tendency  at  one  time  was  to  regard  Arthur  as  a  mythical  or  imaginary 
hero,  but  later  investigation  seems  to  prove  that  he  was  a  vigorous  and  able  British 
leader. 

*  Bede. 


36  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before.  Like  Caesar  and  his 
legions,  they  brought  with  them  the  power  of  Rome  ;  but  this  time 
it  came  not  as  a  force  from  without  to  crush  men  in  the  iron  mould 
of  submission  and  uniformity,  but  as  a  persuasive  voice  to  arouse 
and  cheer  them  with  new  hope.  Providence  had  already  pre- 
pared the  way.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  had  married  Bertha,  a 
French  princess,  who  in  her  own  country  had  become  a  convert 
to  Christianity.  The  Saxons,  or  English,  at  that  time  were  wholly 
pagan,  and  had,  in  all  probability,  destroyed  every  vestige  of  the 
faith  for  which  the  British  martyrs  gave  their  lives. 

79.  Augustine  converts  the  King  of  Kent  and  Ms  People. 

—  Through  the  queen's  influence,  Ethelbert  was  induced  to 
receive  Augustine.  He  was  afraid,  however,  of  some  magical 
practice,  so  he  insisted  that  their  meeting  should  take  place  in 
the  open  air  and  on  the  island  of  Thanet.  The  historian  Bede 
represents  the  monks  as  advancing  to  salute  the  king,  holding  a 
tall  silver  cross  in  their  hands  and  a  picture  of  Christ  painted  on 
an  upright  board.  Augustine  delivered  his  message,  was  well 
received,  and  invited  to  Canterbury,  the  capital  of  Kent.  There 
the  king  became  a  convert  to  his  preaching,  and  before  the  year 
had  passed  ten  thousand  of  his  subjects  had  received  baptism ; 
for  to  gain  the  king  was  to  gain  his  tribe  as  well. 

80.  Augustine  builds  the  First  Monastery.  —  At  Canterbury 
Augustine  became  the  first  archbishop  over  the  first  cathedral. 
There,  too,  he  erected  the  first  monastery  in  which  to  train  mis- 
sionaries to  carry  on  the  work  which  he  had  begun,  a  building 
still  in  use  for  that  purpose,  and  that  continues  to  bear  the  name 
of  the  man  who  founded  it.     The  example  of  the  ruler  of  Kent 
was  not  without  its  effect  on  others. 

81 .  Conversion  of  the  North.  —  The  North  of  England,  how- 
ever, owed  its  conversion  chiefly  to  the  Irish  monks  of  an  earlier 
age.    They  had  planted  monasteries  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  from 
which  colonies  went  forth,  one  of  which  settled  at  Lmdisfarne, 
in  Durham.     Cuthbert,  a  Saxon  monk  of  that  monastery  in  the 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  37 

seventh  century,  travelled  as  a  missionary  throughout  Northumbria, 
and  was  afterward  recognized  as  the  saint  of  the  North.  Through 
his  influence  that  kingdom  was  induced  to  accept  Christianity. 
Others,  too,  went  to  other  districts.  In  one  case,  an  aged  chief 
arose  in  an  assembly  of  warriors  and  said,  "  O  king,  as  a  bird  flies 
through  this  hall  in  the  winter  night,  coming  out  of  the  dark- 
ness and  vanishing  into  it  again,  even  such  is.  our  life.  If  these 
strangers  can  tell  us  aught  of  what  is  beyond,  let  us  give  heed  to 
them."  But  Bede  informs  us  that,  notwithstanding  their  success, 
some  of  the  new  converts  were  too  cautious  to  commit  themselves 
entirely  to  the  strange  religion.  One  king,  who  had  set  up  a  large 
altar  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Christ,  very  prudently  set  up  a 
smaller  one  at  the  other  end  of  the  hall  to  the  old  heathen  deities, 
in  order  that  he  might  make  sure  of  the  favor  of  both. 

82.  Christianity  organized;   Labors  of  the  Monks.  —  Grad- 
ually, however,  the  pagan  faith  was  dropped.     Christianity  organ- 
ized itself  under  conventual   rule.      Monasteries   either  already 
existed  or  were  now  established  at  Lindisfarne,1  Wearmouth,  Whit- 
by  and  Jarrow  in  the  north,  and  at  Peterborough  and  St.  Albans 
in  the  east.     These  monasteries  were  educational  as  well  as  indus- 
trial centres.     Part  of  each  day  was  spent  by  the  monks  in  manual 
toil,  for  they  held  that  "  to  labor  is  to  pray."     They  cleared  the 
land,  drained  the  bogs,  ploughed,  sowed,  and  reaped.     Another  part 
of  the  day  they  spent  in  religious  exercises,  and  a  third  in  writing, 
translating,  and  teaching.     A  school  was  attached  to  each  monas- 
tery, and  each  had  besides  its  library  of  manuscript  books  as  well 
as  its  room  for  the  entertainment  of  travellers  and  pilgrims.     In 
these  libraries  important  charters  and  laws  relating  to  the  kingdom 
were  also  preserved. 

83.  Literary  Work  of  the  Monks.  —  It  was  at  Jarrow  that  Bede 
wrote  in  rude  Latin  the  church-history  of  England.      It  was  at 

1  Lindisfarne,  or  Holy  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Northumberland  —  see  Scott's 
Marmion,  Canto  II.,  9-10.  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow  are  in  Durham,  Whitby  in 
Yorkshire,  and  Peterborough  in  Northamptonshire. 


38  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Whitby  that  the  poet  Csedmon1  composed  his  poem  on  the  Crea- 
tion, in  which,  a  thousand  years  before  Milton,  he  dealt  with 
Milton's  theme  in  Milton's  spirit.  It  was  at  Peterborough  and 
Canterbury  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  was  probably  begun, 
a  work  which  stands  by  itself,  not  only  as  the  first  English  history, 
but  the  first  English  book,  and  the  one  from  which  we  derive 
much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  time  from  the  Roman  conquest 
down  to  a  period  after  the  coming  of  the  Normans.  It  was  in 
the  abbeys  of  Malmesbury  2  and  St.  Albans  that,  at  a  later  period, 
that  history  was  taken  up  and  continued  by  William  of  Malmesbury 
and  Matthew  Paris.  It  was  also  from  these  monasteries  that  an 
influence  went  out  which  eventually  revived  learning  throughout 
Europe. 

84.  Influence  of  Christianity  on  Society.  —  But  the  work  of 
Christianity  for  good  did  not  stop  with  these  things.     The  church 
had  an  important  social  influence.    It  took  the  side  of  the  weak, 
the  suffering,  and  the  oppressed.     It  shielded  the  slave  from  ill 
usage.     It  secured  for  him  Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest,  and  it  con- 
stantly labored  for  his  emancipation. 

85.  Political  Influence   of    Christianity.  —  More   than  this, 
Christianity  had  a  powerful  political  influence.     In  664  a  synod, 
or  council,  was  held  at  Whitby  to  decide  when  Easter  should  be 
observed.     To   that   meeting,  which   was   presided   over   by  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  delegates  were  sent  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.     After  a  protracted  debate  the   synod  decided  in 
favor  of  the    Roman    custom,  and    thus   all   the  churches  were 
brought  into  agreement.     In  this  way,  at  a  period  when  the  coun- 
try was  divided  into  hostile  kingdoms  of  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes, 
each  struggling  fiercely  for  the  mastery,  there  was  a  spirit  of  true 
religious  unity  growing  up.      The  bishops,  monks,  and  priests, 
gathered  at  Whitby,  were  from  tribes  at  open  war  with  each  other. 
But   in   that,  and   other   conferences   which   followed,  they   felt 
that  they  had  a  common  interest,  that  they  were  fellow-country- 

1  Caedmon  (KSdmon).  2  Malmesbury,  Wiltshire. 


No.  5. 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  SAXON 

OK 


To  face   page   38. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  39 

men,  and  that  they  were  all  members  of  the  same  church  and 
laboring  for  the  same  end. 

86.  Egbert.  —  But  during  the  next  hundred  and  fifty  years  the 
chief  indication  outside  the  church  of  any  progress  toward  con- 
solidation was  in  the  growing  power  of  the  kingdom  of  Wessex. 
In  787  Egbert,  a  direct  descendant  of  Cerdic,  the  first  chief  and 
king  of  the  country,  laid  claim  to  the  throne.     Another  claimant 
arose,  who  gained  the  day,  and  Egbert,  finding  that  his  life  was  in 
danger,  fled  the  country. 

87.  Egbert  at  the  Court  of  Charlemagne.  —  He  escaped  to 
France,  and  there  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  King  Charlemagne, 
where  he  remained  thirteen  years.    Charlemagne  had  conceived  the 
gigantic  project  of  resuscitating  the  Roman  Empire.     To  accom- 
plish that,  he  had  engaged  in  a  series  of  wars,  and  in  the  year  800 
had  so  far  conquered  his  enemies  that  he  was  crowned  Emperor 
of  the  West  by  the  Pope  at  Rome. 

88.  Egbert  becomes  "King  of  the  English."  —  That  very  year 
the  king  of  Wessex  died,  and  Egbert  was  summoned  to  take  his 
place.     He  went  back  impressed  with  the  success  of  the  French 
king  and  ambitious  to  imitate  him.     Twenty-three  years  after  that, 
we  hear  of  him  fighting  the  tribes  in  Mercia,  or  Central  Britain. 
His  army  is  described  as  "  lean,  pale,  and  long-breathed  " ;  but 
with  those  cadaverous  troops  he  conquered  and  reduced  the  Mer- 
cians to  subjection.     Other  victories  followed,  and  in  828  he  had 
brought  all  the  sovereignties  of  England  into  vassalage.     He  now 
ventured  to  assume  the  title,  which  he  had  fairly  won,  of  "  King 
of  the  English."  l 

89.  Britain  becomes  England.  —  The  Celts  had  called  the  land 
Albion ;  the  Romans,  Britain  : 2  the  country  now  called  itself  Angle- 
Land,  or  ENGLAND.     Three  causes  had  brought  about  this  consoli- 

1  In  a  single  charter,  dated  828,  he  called  himself  "  Egbert,  by  the  grace  of  God, 
King  of  the  English." 

2  Britain :   nothing  definite  is  known  respecting  the  origin  or  meaning  of  this 
word. 


4O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

dation,  to  which  each  people  had  contributed  part.  The  Jutes  of 
Kent  encouraged  the  foundation  of  the  national  church ;  the  Angles 
gave  the  national  name,  the  West  Saxons  furnished  the  national 
king.  From  him  as  a  royal  source,  every  subsequent  English  sove- 
reign, with  the  exception  of  Harold  II.,  and  a  few  Danish  rulers, 
has  directly  or  indirectly  descended  down  to  the  present  time. 

90.  Alfred  the  Great.  —  Of  these  the  most  conspicuous  during 
the  period  of  which  we  are  writing  was  Alfred,  grandson  of  Egbert. 
He  was  rightly  called  Alfred  the  Great,  since  he  was  the  embodi- 
ment of  whatever  was  best  and  bravest  in  the  English  character. 
The  key-note  of  his  life  may  be  found  in  the  words  which  he 
spoke  at  the  close  of  it,  "  So  long  as  I  have  lived,  I  have  striven 
to  live  worthily." 

91.  Danish  Invasion. — When  he  came  to  the  throne  in  871, 
through  the  death  of  his  brother  Ethelred,  the  Danes  were  sweep- 
ing down  on  the  country.     A  few  months  before  that  event  Alfred 
had  aided  his  brother  in  a  desperate  struggle  with  them.     In  the 
beginning,  the  object  of  the  Danes  was  to  plunder,  later,  to  possess, 
and  finally,  to  rule  over  the  country.     In  the  year  Alfred  came  to 
the  throne,  they  had  already  overrun  a  large  portion  and  invaded 
Wessex.     Wherever  their  raven-flag  appeared,  there  destruction 
and  slaughter  followed. 

92.  The  Danes  destroy  the  Monasteries.  —  The  monasteries 
were  the  especial  objects  of  their  attacks.     Since  their  establish- 
ment many  of  them  had  accumulated  wealth  and  had  sunk  into 
habits  of  idleness  and  luxury.     The  Danes,  without  intending  it, 
came  to  scourge  these  vices.     From  the  thorough  way  in  which 
they  robbed,  burned,  and  murdered,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
they  enjoyed  what  some  might  think  was  their  providential  mis- 
sion.    In  their  helplessness  and  terror,  the  panic-stricken  monks 
added  to  their  usual  prayers,  this  fervent  petition  :  "  From  the  fury 
of  the  Northmen,  good  Lord  deliver  us  ! "     The  power  raised  up 
to  answer  that  supplication  was  Alfred. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  4! 

93.  Alfred's  Victories  over  the  Danes ;  The  White  Horse.  — 

After  repeated  defeats,  he,  with  his  brother,  finally  drove  back 
these  savage  hordes,  who  thought  it  a  shame  to  earn  by  sweat 
what  they  could  win  by  blood ;  whose  boast  was  that  they  would 
fight  in  paradise  even  as  they  had  fought  on  earth,  and  would 
celebrate  their  victories  with  foaming  draughts  of  ale  drunk  from 
the  skulls  of  their  enemies.  In  these  attacks,  Alfred  led  one-half 
the  army,  Ethelred  the  other.  They  met  the  Danes  at  Ashdown, 
in  Berkshire.  While  Ethelred  stopped  to  pray  for  success,  Alfred, 
under  the  banner  of  the  "  White  Horse,"  -  —  the  common  standard 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  at  that  time,  —  began  the  attack  and  won  the 
day.  Tradition  declares  that  after  the  victory  he  ordered  his  army 
to  commemorate  their  triumph  by  carving  that  colossal  figure  of 
a  horse  on  the  side  of  a  neighboring  chalk-hill,  which  still  remains 
so  conspicuous  an  object  in  the  landscape.  It  was  shortly  after 
this  that  Alfred  became  king ;  but  the  war,  far  from  being  ended, 
had  in  fact  but  just  begun. 

94.  The  Danes  compel  Alfred  to  retreat. — The  Danes,  re- 
inforced by  other  invaders,  overcame  Alfred  s    "orces  and  com- 
pelled him  to  retreat.     He  fled  to  the  wilds  of  Somersetshire,  and 
was  glad  to  take  up  his  abode  for  a  time,   so  the  story  runs, 
in  a  peasant's  hut.     Subsequently  he  succeeded  in  rallying  part  of 
his  people,  and  built  a  stronghold  on  a  piece  of  rising  ground,  in 
the  midst  of  an  almost  impassable  morass.    There  he  remained 
during  the  winter. 

95.  Great  Victory  by  Alfred;  Treaty  of  Wedmore,  878.— 

In  the  spring  he  marched  forth  and  again  attacked  the  Danes. 
They  were  entrenched  in  a  camp  at  Edington,  Wiltshire.  Alfred 
surrounded  them,  and  starved  them  into  submission  so  cornplete 
that  Guthrum,  the  Danish  leader,  swore  a  peace,  called  the  Peace 
or  Treaty  of  Wedmore,  and  sealed  the  oath  with  his  baptism  —  an 
admission  that  Alfred  had  not  only  beaten,  but  converted  him 
as  well. 


42  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

96.  Terms  of  the  Treaty.  —  By  the  Treaty  of  Wedmore l  the 
Danes  bound  themselves  to  remain  north  and  east  of  a  line  drawn 
from  London  to  Chester,  following  the  old  Roman  road  called 
Watling-street.     All  south  of  this  line,  including  a  district  around 
London,  was  recognized  as  the  dominions  of  Alfred,  whose  chief 
city,  or  capital,  was  Winchester.     By  this  treaty  the  Danes  got 
much  the  larger  part  of  England,   on  the  one  hand,  though  they 
acknowledged  Alfred  as  their  over-lord,  on  the  other.     He  thus 
became  nominally  what  his  predecessor,  Egbert,  had  claimed  to 
be,  —  the  king  of  the  whole  country.3 

97.  Alfred's  Laws  ;  his  Translations.  —  He  proved  himself  to 
be  more  than  mere  ruler ;  for  he  was  law-giver  and  teacher  as 
well.     Through  his  efforts  a  written  code  was  compiled,  prefaced 
by  the  Ten  Commandments  and  ending  with  the  Golden  Rule  ; 
and,  as   Alfred  added,  referring  to  the  introduction,  "  He  who 
keeps  this  shall  not  need  any  other  law-book."     Next,  that  learn- 
ing  might  not  utterly  perish   in   the  ashes  of  the  abbeys  and 
monasteries  which  the  Danes  had  destroyed,  the  king,  though 
feeble  and  suffering,  cet"  himself  to  translate  from  the  Latin  the 
Universal  History  of  Orosius,  and  also  Bede's  History  of  England. 
He  afterward  rendered  into  English  the  Reflections  of  the  Roman 
senator,  Boethius,  on  the  Supreme  Good,  an  inquiry  written  by  the 
latter  while  in  prison,  under  sentence  of  death. 

98.  Alfred's  Navy.  —  Alfred,  however,  still  had  to  combat  the 
Danes,  who  continued  to  make  descents  upon  the  coast,  and  even 
sailed  up  the  Thames  to  take  London.    He  constructed  a  superior 
class  of  fast-sailing  war-vessels  from  designs  made  by  himself,  and 
with  this  fleet,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  Eng- 
lish navy,  he  fought  the  enemy  on  their  own  element.     He  thus 
effectually  checked  a  series  of  invasions  which,  had  they  continued, 
might  have  eventually  reduced  the  country  to  primitive  barbarism. 

1  Wedmore  (the  Wet-Moor),  near  Wells,  Somersetshire  :  here,  according  to 
tradition,  Alfred  had  a  palace  in  which  the  treaty  was  consummated. 

2  See  Map  No.  6,  page  42. 


No.  6. 

ENGLAND    TOWARD   THE   CLOSE   OF  THE    NINTH    CENTURY. 


To  face  page  42. 

The  shaded  district  on  the  northeast  shows  the  part  obtained  by  the  Danes  by  the 
Treaty  of  Wedmore,  878  A.D. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  43 

99.  Estimate   of  Alfred's  Reign.  —  Considered   as  a  whole, 
Alfred's  reign  is  the  most  noteworthy  of  any  in  the  annals  of  the 
early  English  sovereigns.     It  was  marked  throughout  by  intelli- 
gence and  progress.     His  life  speaks  for  itself.     The  best  com- 
mentary on  it  is  the  fact  that,  in  1849,  the  people  of  Wantage,1  his 
native  place,  celebrated  the  thousandth  anniversary  of  his  birth  — 
another  proof  that  "what  is  excellent,  as  God  lives,  is  permanent."2 

100.  Dunstan's    Reforms. — Two    generations    after    Alfred's 
death,  Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  ablest  man  in  an 
age  when  all  statesmen  were  ecclesiastics,  came  forward  to  take  up 
and  push  onward  the  work  begun  by  the  great  king.     He  labored 
for  higher  education,  for  strict  monastic  rule,  and  for  the  celibacy 
of  the  monks. 

101.  Regular  and  Secular  Clergy.  —  At  that  time  the  clergy 
of  England  were  divided  into  two  classes,  —  the  "regulars,"  or 
monks,  and  the  "  seculars,"  or  parish  priests  and  other  clergy  not 
bound  by  monastic  vows.     The  former  lived  in  the  monasteries 
apart  from  the  world ;  the  latter  lived  in  it.     By  their  monastic 
vows,3  the  "regulars  "  were  bound  to  remain  unmarried,  while  the 
"  seculars  "  were  not.     Notwithstanding  Alfred's  efforts  at  reform, 
many  monasteries  had  relaxed  their  rules,  and  were  again  filled 
with  drones.     In  violation  of  their  vows,  large  numbers  of  the 
monks  were  married.     Furthermore,  many  new  churches  had  been 
endowed  and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  "  seculars." 

102.  Danger  to  the  State  from  Each  Class  of  Clergy. —The 

danger  was  that  this  laxity  would  go  on  increasing,  so  that  in  time 
the  married  clergy  would  monopolize  the  clerical  influence  and 
clerical  wealth  of  the  kingdom  for  themselves  and  their  families. 
They  would  thus  become  an  hereditary  body,  a  close  corporation, 
transmitting  their  power  and  possessions  from  father  to  son  through 
generations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  of  the  unmarried 

1  Wantage,  Berkshire.  -  R.  W.  Emerson. 

8  The  monastic  vows  required  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  to  the  rules  of 
their  order. 


44  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

clergy  would  be  to  become  wholly  subservient  to  the  church  and 
the  Pope,  though  they  must  necessarily  recruit  their  ranks  from 
the  people.  In  this  last  respect  they  would  be  more  democratic 
than  the  opposite  class.  They  would  also  be  more  directly  con- 
nected with  national  interests  and  the  national  life,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  would  be  able  to  devote  themselves  more  exclu- 
sively to  study  and  to  intellectual  culture  than  the  "  seculars." 

103.  Dunstan  as  a  Statesman  and  Artisan.  —  In  addition  to 
these  reforms,  Dunstan  proved  himself  to  be  as  clever  a  states- 
man as  theologian.     He  undertook,  with  temporary  success,  to 
reconcile  the  conflicting  interests  of  the  Danes  and  the  English. 
He  was  also  noted  as  a  mechanic  and  worker  in  metals.    The 
common  people  regarded  his  accomplishments  in  this  direction 
with  superstitious  awe.     Many  stories  of  his  skill  were  circulated, 
and  it  was  even  whispered  that  in  a  personal  contest  with  Beelze- 
bub, it  was  the  devil  and  not  the  monk  who  got  the  worst  of  it 
and  fled  from  the  saint's  workshop,  howling  with  dismay. 

104.  New  Invasions ;  Danegeld.  —  With  the  close  of  Dun- 
stan's  career,  the  period  of  decline  sets  in.     Fresh  inroads  began 
on  the  part  of  the  Northmen,1  and  so  feeble  and  faint-hearted 
grew  the  resistance  that  at  last  a  royal  tax,  called  Danegeld,  or 
Dane-money,  was  levied  on  all  landed  property  in  order  to  raise 
means  to  buy  off  the  invaders.     For  a  brief  period  this  cowardly 
concession  answered  the  purpose.      But  a  time  came  when  the 
Danes  would  no  longer  be  bribed  to  keep  away. 

105.  The  Northmen  invade  France.  —  The  Danish  invasion 
was  really  a  part  of  a  great   European   movement.     The  same 
Northmen  who  had  obtained  so  large  a  part  of  England,  had  also, 
in  the  tenth  century,  under  the  leadership  of  Rollo,  established 
themselves  in  France.     There  they  were  known  as   Normans,  a 
softened  form  of  the  word  "  Northmen,"  and  the  district  where  they 
settled  came  to  be  called  from  them  Normandy.     They  founded 

1  This  name  was  given  to  Norsemen,  Swedes,  Danes,  and  all  northern  tribes. 


No.  7. 


AT  THE 

TIME  OF  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST 

1O66. 
Showing  the  four  great  earldoms  of 

1.  Wessex 

2.  Mcrria 

3.  East  Anglia 

Northumberland 

With  the  principal  towns  and  the  dependent 
gdonu  of  Slraihdyde,  North 
rut  Wetl  Wales,  and 
the  Me  of  Man. 


To  face  page  44. 


t. 


- 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  45 

a  line  of  dukes,  or  princes,  who  were  destined,  in  the  course  of  the 
next  century,  to  give  a  new  aspect  to  the  events  of  English  history. 

106.  Sweyn  conquers  England;  Canute.1  —  In  1013  Sweyn, 
the  Dane,  conquered  England,  and  "all  the  people,"  says   the 
Chronicle,  "  held  him  for  full  king."    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Canute,  who,  though  from  beyond  sea,  could  hardly  be  called  a 
foreigner,  since  he  spoke  a  language  and  set  up  a  government  dif- 
fering but  little  from  that  of  the  English.     After  his  first  harsh 
measures  were  over  he  sought  the  friendship  of  both  church  and 
people.     He  rebuked  the  flattery  of  courtiers  by  showing  them 
that  the  in-rolling  tide  is  no  respecter  of  persons ;  he  endeavored 
to  rule  justly,  and  his  liking  for  the  monks  found  expression  in 

his  song:  — 

"  Merrily  sang  the  monks  of  Ely 
As  Cnut  the  King  was  passing  by." 

107.  Canute's  Plan ;  the  Four  Earldoms.  —  Canute's  plan  was 
to  establish  a  great  northern  empire  embracing  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  England.    To  facilitate  the  government  of  so  large 
a  realm,  he  divided  England  into  four  districts,  Wessex,  Mercia, 
East  Anglia,  and  Northumbria,  which,  with  their  dependencies, 
embraced  the  entire  country.     Each  of  these  districts  was  ruled 
by  an  earl2  invested  with  almost  royal  power.     For  a  time  the 
arrangement  worked  well,  but  eventually  discord  sprang  up  be- 
tween the  rulers,  and  the  unity  of  the  country  was  imperilled  by 
their   individual   ambition   and   their  efforts   to   obtain   supreme 
authority.  <f 

108.  Prince  Edward.  —  On  the  accession  .of  the  Danish  con- 
queror Sweyn,  Ethelred  II.,  the  Saxon  king,  sent  his  French  wife 
Emma  back  to  Normandy  for  safety.     She  took  with  her  her  son 
Prince  Edward,  then  a  lad  of  nine.     He  remained  at  the  French 

1  Also  spelled  Cnut  and  Knut. 

2  Earl  ("  chief"  or  "  leader  ")  :  a  title  of  honor,  and  of  office.    The  four  earldoms 
established  by  Canute  remained  nearly  unchanged  until  the  Norman  Conquest,  1066, 
See  Map  No.  7,  page  44. 


46  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

court  nearly  thirty  years,  and  among  other  friends  to  whom  he 
became  greatly  attached  was  his  second  cousin,  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy. 

109.  Restoration  of  the  English  Kings ;  Edward  the  Confessor. 
—  In  1042  the  oppressive  acts  of  Canute's  sons  excited  insurrec- 
tion, and  both  Danes  and  Saxons  joined  in  the  determination  to 
restore  the  Saxon  line.     Edward  was  invited  to  accept  the  crown. 
He  returned  to  England  and  obtained  the  throne.     By  birth  he 
was  already  half  Norman ;  by  education  and  tastes  he  was  wholly 
so.     It  is  very  doubtful  whether  he  could  speak  a  word  of  English, 
and  it  is  certain  that  from  the  beginning  he  surrounded  himself 
with  French  favorites,  and  filled  the  church  with  French  priests. 
Edward's    piety   and  blameless   life  gained  for  him  the  title  of 
"  the  Confessor,"  or,  as  we  should  say  to-day,  "  the  Christian." 
He  married  the  daughter  of  Godwin,  Earl  of  Wessex,  the  most 
powerful  noble  in  England.     Godwin  really  ruled  the  country  in 
the  king's  name  until  his  death  in  1053,  when  his  son  Harold 
succeeded   him   as   earl.     The   latter  continued   to  exercise  his 
father's  influence  to  counteract  the  French. 

110.  Edward  builds  Westminster  Abbey.  —  During  a   large 
part  of  his  reign,  Edward  was  engaged  in  building  an  abbey  at  the 
west  end  of  London,  and  hence  called  the  West-minster.1    He  had 
just  completed  and  consecrated  this  great  work  when  he  died,  and 
was  buried  there.     We  may  still  see  a  part  of  his  building  in  the 
crypt  or  basement  of  the  abbey,  while  the  king's  tomb  above  is 
the  centre  around  which  lies  a  circle  of  royal  graves.     To  it  mul- 
titudes made  pilgrimage  in  the  olden  time,  and  once  every  year 
a  little  band  of  devoted  Roman  Catholics  still  gather  about  it  in 
veneration  of  virtues  that  would  have  adorned  a  cloister,  but  had 
not  breadth  and  vigor  to  fill  a  throne. 

With  Edward,  save  for  the  short  interlude  of  Harold,  the  last 
of  the  Saxon  kings  and  the  "ablest  man  of  an  unprogressive  race," 
the  period  closes. 

1  Minster:  a  name  given  originally  to  a  monastery;  next,  to  a  church  connected 
with  a  monastery ;  and  now  often,  though  incorrectly,  applied  to  a  cathedral. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  47 

111 .  Harold  becomes  King,  1066.  —  On  his  death-bed,  Edward, 
who  had  no  children,  recommended  Harold,  Earl  of  Wessex,  as 
his  successor,  though,  according  to  the  Normans,  he  had  prom- 
ised that  their  Duke  William,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  was  a  distant 
kinsman,  should  reign  after  him.     The  Witan,1  or  National  Coun- 
cil, chose  Harold,  who  was  crowned  Jan.  16,  1066. 

112.  What  the  Saxon  Conquest  did  for  Britain. — Saxons, 
Jutes,  and  Angles  invaded  Britain  at  a  period  when  its  original 
inhabitants  had  become  cowed  and  enervated  by  the  despotism 
and  worn-out  civilization  forced  on  them  by  a  foreign  power. 

The  new-comers  brought  that  healthy  spirit  of  barbarism,  that 
irrepressible  love  of  personal  liberty,  which  the  country  stood  most 
in  need  of.  The  conquerors  were  rough,  ignorant,  cruel;  but 
they  were  fearless  and  determined.  These  qualities  were  worth 
a  thousand  times  more  to  Britain  than  the  gilded  corruption  of 
Rome.  In  time,  the  English  themselves  lost  spirit.  Their  beset- 
ting sin  was  a  stolidity  which  degenerated  into  animalism  and 
sluggish  content. 

113.  Elements  contributed  by  the  Danes. — Then  came  the 
Danes,  bringing  with  them  that  new  spirit  of  still  more  savage  in- 
dependence which  so  well  expressed  itself  in  their  song,  "  I  trust 
my  sword,  I  trust  my  steed,  but  most  I  trust  myself  at  need." 
They  conquered  the  land,  and  in  conquering  regenerated  it.     So 
strong  was  their  love  of  independence,  that  even  the  peasants  were 
quite  generally  free.     More  small  independent  landholders  were 
found  among  the  Danish  population  than  anywhere  else ;  and  it 
is  said  that  the  number  now  existing  in  the  region  they  settled 
is  still  much  larger  than  in  the  south.     Finally,  the  Danes  and 
English,  both  of  whom  sprang  from  the  same  parent  stock,  mingled 
and  became  in  all  respects  one  people. 

114.  Summary :    What  the  Anglo-Saxons   accomplished.  — 

Thus  Jutes,  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Danes,  whom  together  we  may 

1  Witan:  literally  the  "  Wise  men,"  the  chief  men  of  the  realm. 


48  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

call  the  Anglo-Saxons,1  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  English  nation. 
However  much  it  has  changed  since,  it  remains,  nevertheless,  in  its 
solid  and  fundamental  qualities,  what  these  first  peoples  made  it. 

They  gave  first  the  language,  simple,  strong,  direct,  and  plain,  — 
the  familiar,  every-day  speech  of  the  fireside  and  the  street,  the 
well-known  words  of  both  the  newspaper  and  the  Bible. 

Next,  they  established  the  government  in  its  main  outlines  as  it 
still  exists ;  that  is,  a  king,  a  legislative  body  representing  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  germ,  at  least,  of  a  judicial  system  embodying  trial 
by  jury.2 

Last,  and  best,  they  furnished  that  conservative  patience,  that 
calm,  steady,  persistent  effort,  that  indomitable  tenacity  of  pur- 
pose, and  cool,  determined  courage,  which  have  won  glorious 
battle-fields  on  both  sides  the  Atlantic,  and  which  in  peace,  as 
well  as  in  war,  are  destined  to  win  still  greater  victories  in  the 
future. 


GENERAL  VIEW   OF   THE   SAXON,   OR    EARLY   ENGLISH, 
PERIOD  —  449-1066. 8 

I.  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV. 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART. — V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE. — VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

115.  Beginning  of  the  English  Monarchy.  —  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  first  four  centuries  after  the  Saxon  conquest  Britain  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  tribal  settlements,  or  petty  kingdoms,  held  by 
Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons,  constantly  at  war  with  each  other.  In  the 

1  Anglo-Saxons :   some  authorities  insist  that  this  phrase  means  the  Saxons  ol 
England  in  distinction  from  those  of  the  continent.     It  is  used  here,  however,  in 
the  sense  given  by  Mr.  Freeman  as  a  term  describing  the  people  formed  in  England 
by  the  union  of  all  the  Germanic  tribes. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  125. 

8  This  section  contains  a  summary  of  much  of  the  preceding  period,  with  con- 
siderable additional  matter.  It  is  believed  that  it  will  be  found  useful  both  for 
review  and  for  reference.  When  a  continuous  narrative  history  is  desired,  this,  and 
similar  sections  following,  may  be  omitted. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  49 

ninth  century,  the  West  Saxons,  or  inhabitants  of  Wessex,  succeeded, 
under  the  leadership  of  Egbert,  in  practically  conquering  and  uniting 
the  country.  Egbert  now  assumed  the  title  of  "  King  of  the  English," 
and  Britain  came  to  be  known,  from  the  name  of  its  largest  division, 
as  Angle-Land,  or  England.  Later,  the  Danes  obtained  possession  of 
a  large  part  of  the  country,  but  eventually  united  with  the  English  and 
became  one  people. 

116.  The  King  and  the  Witan.  —  The  government  of  England 
was  vested  in  an  elective  sovereign,  assisted  by  the  council  of  the  Witan, 
or  Wise  Men.     Every  freeman  had  the  right  to  attend  this  national 
council,  but,  in  practice,  the  right  became  confined  to  a  small  number 
of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 

117.  What  the  Witan  could  do. —  I.    The  Witan  elected  the 
king  (its  choice  being  confined  to  the  royal  family).      2.    In  case  of 
misgovernment,  it  deposed  him.     3.    It  made  or  confirmed  grants  of 
public  lands.    4.   It  acted  as  a  supreme  court  of  justice  both  in  civil 
and  criminal  cases. 

118.  What  the  King  and  Witan  could  do.  —  I .    They  enacted 
the  laws,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical.     (In  most  cases  this  meant  noth- 
ing more  than  stating  what  the  custom  was,  the  common  law  being 
merely  the  common  custom.)     2.  They  levied  taxes.     3.  They  declared 
war  and  made  peace.    4    They  appointed  the  chief  officers  and  bishops 
of  the  realm. 

119.  Land-Tenure  before  the  Conquest.  —  Before  they  invaded 
Britain  the  Saxons  and  kindred  tribes  appear  to  have  held  their  estates 
in  common.    Each  had  a  permanent  homestead,  but  that  was  all.1    "No 
one,"  says  Caesar,  "  has  a  fixed  quantity  of  land  or  boundaries  to  his 
property.     The  magistrates  and  chiefs  assign  every  year  to  the  families 
and  communities  who  live  together,  as  much  land  and  in  such  spots  as 
.they  think  suitable.     The  following  year  they  require  them  to  take  up 
another  allotment. 

"  The  chief  glory  of  the  tribes  is  to  have  their  territory  surrounded 
with  as  wide  a  belt  as  possible  of  waste  land.  They  deem  it  not  only  a 
special  mark  of  valor  that  every  neighboring  tribe  should  be  driven  to 
a  distance,  and  that  no  stranger  should  dare  to  reside  in  their  vicinity, 

I  "  The  houses  were  not  contiguous,  but  each  was  surrounded  by  a  space  of  its 
own."  —  TACITUS,  Gtrmania. 


5<D  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

but  at  the  same  time  they  regard  it  as  a  precautionary  measure  against 
sudden  attacks."  l 

120.  Folkland.  —  Each  tribe,  in  forming  its  settlement,  seized  more 
land  than  it  actually  needed.     This  excess  was  known  as  Folkland  (the 
People's  land),  and  might  be  used  by  all  alike  for  pasturing  cattle  or 
cutting  wood.     With  the  consent  of  the  Witan,  the  king  might  grant 
portions  of  this  Folkland  as  a  reward  for  services  done  to  himself  or 
to  the  community.      Such  grants  were  usually  conditional  and  could 
only  be  made  for  a  time.     Eventually,  they  returned  to  the  community. 
Other  grants,  however,  might  be  made  in  the  same  way,  which  con- 
ferred full  ownership.     Such  grants  were  called  Bocland  (Book  land)v 
because  conveyed  by  writing,  or  registered  in  a  charter  or  book.     In 
time,  the   king  obtained   the   power  of  making  these  grants  without 
having  to  consult  the  Witan,  and  at  last  the  whole  of  the  Folkland 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  absolute  property  of  the  crown. 

121.  Duties  of  Freemen.  —  Every  freeman  was  obliged  to  do  three 
things  :    i.  He  must  assist  in  the  maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges.    2. 
He  must  aid  in  the  repair  of  forts.     3.  He  must  serve  in  case  of  war. 
Whoever  neglected  or  refused  to  perform  this  last  and  most  important 
of  all  duties  was  declared  to  be  a  Nithing,  or  infamous  coward.2 

122.  The  Feudal  System. —  In  addition  to  the  Eorls  (earls)8  or 
nobles  by  birth,  there  gradually  grew  up  a  class  known  as  Thanes  (com- 
panions or  servants  of  the  king),  who  in  time  outranked  the  hereditary 
nobility.     To  both  these  classes  the  king  would  have  occasion  to  give 
rewards  for  faithful  service  and  for  deeds  of  valor.     As  his  chief  wealth 
consisted  in  land,  he  would  naturally  give  that.     At  first  no  conditions 
seem  to  have  been  attached  to  the  gift ;  but  later  the  king  might  require 
the  receiver  to  agree  to  furnish  a  certain  number  of  fully  equipped  sol- 

1  Caesar.  Gallic  War,  Book  VI. 

2  Also  written  Niding.    The  English,  as  a  rule,  were  more  afraid  of  this  name 
than  of  death  itself. 

3  The  Saxons,  or  Early  English,  were  divided  up  into  three   classes,  —  Eorls 
(earls),  who  were  noble  by  birth;  Ceorls  (churls),  or  simple  freemen,  and  slaves. 
The  slaves  were  either  the  absolute  property  of  the  master,  or  were  bound  to  the 
soil  and  sold  with  it.    This  latter  class,  under  the  Norman  name  of  villeins,  be- 
came numerous  after  the  Norman  Conquest  in  the  eleventh  century.    The  chief- 
tains of  the  first  Saxon  settlers  were  called  either  Ealdormen  (aldermen)  or  Here- 
togas,  the  first  being  civil  or  magisterial,  the  latter  military  officers.    The  Thanes 
were  a  later  class,  who,  from  serving  the  king  or  some  powerful  leader,  became 
noble  by  military  service. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  51 

diers  to  fight  for  him.  These  grants  were  originally  made  for  life  only, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  recipient  they  returned  to  the  crown. 

The  nobles  and  other  great  landholders  following  the  example  ol 
the  king,  granted  portions  of  their  estates  to  tenants  on  similar  condi- 
tions, and  these  again  might  grant  portions  to  those  below  them  in 
return  for  satisfactory  military  or  other  service. 

In  time,  it  came  to  be  an  established  principle,  that  every  freeman 
below  the  rank  of  a  noble  must  be  attached  to  some  superior  whom  he 
was  bound  to  serve,  and  who,  on  the  other  hand,  was  his  legal  pro- 
tector and  responsible  for  his  good  behavior.  The  lordless  man  was, 
in  fact,  a  kind  of  outlaw,  and  might  be  seized  like  a  robber.  In  that 
respect,  therefore,  he  would  be  worse  off  than  the  slave,  who  had  a 
master  to  whom  he  was  accountable  and  who  was  accountable  for  him. 
Eventually  it  became  common  for  the  small  landholders,  especially 
during  the  Danish  invasions,  to  seek  the  protection  of  some  neighbor- 
ing lord  who  had  a  large  band  of  followers  at  his  command.  In  such 
cases  the  freeman  gave  up  his  land  and  received  it  again  on  certain 
conditions.  The  usual  form  was  for  him  to  kneel,  and,  placing  his 
hands  within  those  of  the  lord,  to  swear  an  oath  of  homage,  saying, 
"  I  become  your  man  for  the  lands  which  I  hold  of  you,  and  I  will  be 
faithful  to  you  against  all  men,  saving  only  the  service  which  I  owe  to 
my  lord  the  King."  On  his  side,  the  lord  solemnly  promised  to  defend 
his  tenant  or  vassal  in  the  possession  of  his  property,  for  which,  he  was 
to  perform  some  service  to  the  lord. 

In  these  two  ways,  first,  by  grant  of  lands  from  the  king  or  a  supe- 
rior, and  second,  by  the  act  of  homage  (known  as  commendation},  the 
feudal  system  (a  name  derived  from  feodunt,  meaning  land  or  property), 
grew  up  in  England.  Its  growth,  however,  was  irregular  and  incom- 
plete ;  and  it  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  it  was  not  until  after  the 
Norman  Conquest  in  the  eleventh  century  that  it  became  fully  established. 

123.  Advantages  of  Feudalism.  —  This  system  had  at  that  time 
many  advantages,  i.  The  old  method  of  holding  land  in  common  was 
a  wasteful  one,  since  the  way  in  which  the  possessor  of  a  field  might 
cultivate  it  would  perhaps  spoil  it  for  the  one  who  received  it  at  the 
next  allotment.  2.  In  an  age  of  constant  warfare,  feudalism  protected 
all  classes  better  than  if  they  had  stood  apart,  and  it  enabled  the  king 
to  raise  a  powerful  and  well-armed  force  in  the  easiest  and  quickest 
manner.  3.  It  cultivated  two  important  virtues,  —  fidelity  on  the  part  ot 
the  vassal,  protection  on  that  of  the  lord.  Its  corner-stone  was  thr 


52  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

faithfulness  of  man  to  man.  Society  has  outgrown  feudalism,  which 
like  every  system  had  its  dark  side,  but  it  can  never  outgrow  the  feudal 
principle. 

124.  Political  Divisions ;  the  Sheriff.  —  Politically,  the  kingdom 
was  divided  into  townships,  hundreds  (districts  furnishing  a  hundred 
warriors,  or  supporting  a  hundred  families),  and  shires  or  counties,  the 
shire  having  been  originally,  in  some  cases,  the  section  settled  by  an 
independent  tribe,  as  Sussex,  Essex,  etc. 

In  each  shire  the  king  had  an  officer,  called  a  shire-reeve  or  sheriff,1 
who  represented  him,  collected  the  taxes  due  the  crown,  and  saw  to 
the  execution  of  the  laws.  In  like  manner,  the  town  and  the  hundred 
had  a  head-man  of  its  own  choosing  to  see  to  matters  of  general 
interest. 

125.  The  Courts.  —  As  the  nation  had  its  assembly  of  wise  men 
acting  as  a  high  court,  so  each  shire,  hundred,  and  town  had  its  court, 
which  all  freemen  might  attend.      There,  without  any  special  judge, 
jury,  or  lawyers,  cases  of  all  kinds  were  tried  and  settled  by  the  voice 
of  the  entire  body,  who  were  both  judge  and  jury  in  themselves. 

126.  Methods  of  Procedure ;    Compurgation.  —  In  these  courts 
there  were  two  methods  of  procedure :   first,  the  accused  might  clear 
himself  of  the  charge  brought  against  him  by  compurgation ;  2  that  is,  by 
swearing  that  he  was  not  guilty  and  getting  a  number  of  reputable 
neighbors  to  swear  that  they  believed  his  oath.     If  their  oaths  were 
not  satisfactory,  witnesses  might  be  brought  to  swear  to  some  particular 
fact.     In  every  case  the  value  of  the  oath  was  graduated  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  person,  that  of  a  man  of  high  rank  being  worth  as 
much  as  that  of  twelve  common  men. 

127.  The  Ordeal.  —  If  the  accused  could  not  clear  himself  in  this 
way,  he  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  ordeal.8     This  usually  consisted 
in  carrying  a  piece  of  hot  iron  a  certain  distance,  or  in  plunging  the 
arm  up  to  the  elbow  in  boiling  water.     The  person  who  underwent  the 
ordeal  appealed  to  God  to  prove  his  innocence  by  protecting  him  from 
harm.     Rude  as  both  these  methods  were,  they  were  better  than  the 
old  tribal  method,  which  permitted  every  man  or  every  man's  family  to 
be  the  avenger  of  his  wrongs. 

1  Reeve :  a  man  in  authority,  or  having  charge  of  something. 

2  Compurgation :  the  act  of  wholly  purifying  or  clearing  a  person  from  guilt 
*  Ordeal :  judgment. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  53 

128.  The  Common  Law. —  The  laws  by  which  these  cases  were 
tried  were  almost  always  ancient  customs,  few  of  which  had  been  re- 
duced to  writing.     They  formed  that  body  of  common  law1  which  is  the 
foundation    of  the   modern   system  of  justice   both   in   England   and 
America. 

129.  Penalties.  —  The  penalties  inflicted  by  these  courts  consisted 
chiefly  of  fines.     Each  man's  life  had  a  certain  pecuniary  value.     The 
punishment  for  the  murder  of  a  man  of  very  high  rank  was  2400  shil- 
lings ;  that  of  a  simple  freeman  was  only  one-twelfth  as  much. 

A  slave  could  neither  testify  in  court  nor  be  punished  by  the  court. 
For  the  man  in  that  day  who  held  no  land  had  no  rights.  If  a  slave 
was  convicted  of  crime,  his  master  paid  the  fine  and  then  took  what  he 
considered  an  equivalent  with  the  lash.  Treason  was  punished  with 
death,  and  common  scolds  were  ducked  in  a  pond  until  they  were  glad 
to  hold  their  tongues. 

RELIGION. 

130.  The  Ancient  Saxon  Faith.  —  Before   their  conversion  to 
Christianity,   the    Saxons  worshipped  Woden  and  Thor,  names  pre- 
served in  Wednesday  (Woden's  day)  and  Thursday  (Thor's  day).     The 
first  appears  to  have  been  considered  the  creator  and  ruler  of  heaven 
and  earth  ;  the  second  was  his  son,  the  god  of  thunder,  slayer  of  evil 
spirits,  and  friend  of  man.     The  essential  element  of  their  religion  was 
the  deification  of  strength,  courage,  and  fortitude.     It  was  a  faith  well 
suited  to  a  warlike  people.     It  taught  that  there  was  a  heaven  for  the 
brave,  and  a  hell  for  cowards. 

131.  What  Christianity  did.  —  Christianity,  on  the  contrary,  laid 
emphasis  on  the  virtues  of  self-sacrifice  and  sympathy.     It  took  the  side 
of  the  weak  and  the  helpless.     It  labored  to  emancipate  the  slave.     It 
built  monasteries,  and  encouraged  industry  and  education.    The  church 
edifice  was  a  kind  of  open  Bible.     Very  few  who'entered  it  could  spell 
out  a  single  word  of  either  Old  or  New  Testament,  but  all,  from  the 
poorest  peasant  or  meanest  slave  up  to  the  greatest  noble,  could  read 
the  meaning  of  the  Scripture  histories  painted  on  wall  and  window. 

The  church,  furthermore,  was  a  peculiarly  sacred  place.  It  was  power- 
ful to  shield  those  who  were  in  danger.  If  a  criminal,  or  a  person  flee- 

1  So  called,  in  distinction  from  the  later  statute  laws  made  by  Parliament  and 
other  legislative  bodies. 


54  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ing  from  vengeance,  took  refuge  in  it,  he  could  not  be  seized  until  forty 
days  had  expired,  during  which  time  he  had  the  privilege  of  leaving  the 
kingdom  and  going  into  exile.  This  "right  of  sanctuary"  was  often  a 
needful  protection  in  an  age  of  violence.  It  became,  however,  in  time, 
an  intolerable  nuisance,  since  it  enabled  robbers  and  desperadoes  of  all 
kinds  to  defy  the  law.  The  right  was  modified  at  different  times,  but 
was  not  wholly  abolished  until  1624,  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 

MILITARY   AFFAIRS. 

132.  The  Army.  —  The  organization  of  the  army  has  already  been 
spoken  of  under  Land-Tenure.     It  consisted  of  a  national  and  a  feudal 
militia.     From  the  earliest  times  all  freemen  were  obliged  to  fight  in 
the  defence  of  the  country.     Under  the  feudal  system,  every  large  land- 
holder had  to  furnish  the  king  a  stipulated  number  of  men,  fully  equipped 
with  armor  and  weapons.     As  this  method  was  found  more  effective  than 
the  first,  it  gradually  superseded  ii. 

The  Saxons  always  fought  on  foot.  They  wore  helmets  and  rude, 
flexible  armor,  formed  of  iron  rings,  or  of  stout  leather  covered  with 
small  plates  of  iron  and  other  substances.  They  carried  oval-shaped 
shields.  Their  chief  weapons  were  the  spear,  javelin,  battle-axe,  and 
sword.  The  wars  of  this  period  were  those  of  the  different  tribes  seek- 
ing supremacy,  or  of  the  English  with  the  Danes. 

133.  The  Navy.  —  Until  Alfred's  reign,  the  English  had  no  navy. 
From  that  period  they  maintained  a  fleet  of  small  war-ships  to  protect 
the  coast  from  invasion.     Most  of  these  vessels  appear  to  have  been 
furnished  by  certain  ports  on  the  south  coast. 

LITERATURE,    LEARNING,    AND    ART. 

134.  Runes.  —  The  language  of  the   Saxons  was  of  Low-German 
origin.     Many  of  the  words  resemble  the  German  of  the  present  day. 
When  written,  the  characters  were  called  runes,  mysteries  or  secrets. 
The  chief  use  of  these  runes  was  to  mark  a  sword-hilt,  or  some  article 
of  value,  or  to  form  a  charm  against  evil  and  witchcraft. 

It  is  supposed  that  one  of  the  earliest  runic  inscriptions  is  the  follow- 
ing, which  dates  from  about  400  A.D.  It  is  cut  on  a  drinking-horn,1 
and  (reproduced  in  English  characters)  stands  thus :  — 

1  The  golden  horn  of  Gallehas,  tound  on  the  Danish-German  frontier 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  55 

EK   HLEWAGASTIR .  HOLTINGAR .  HORNA .  TAWIDO. 
/,  Hlewgastir,  son  of  Holt  a,  made  the  horn. 

With  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  the  Latin  alphabet,  from  which 
our  modern  English  alphabet  is  derived,  took  the  place  of  the  runic 
characters,  which  bore  some  resemblance  to  Greek,  and  English  litera- 
ture began  with  the  coming  of  the  monks. 

135.  The  First  Books.  —  One  of  the  first  English  books  was  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  a  history  covering  a  period  of  about  twelve 
hundred  years,  beginning  with  the  Roman  invasion  and  ending  in  the 
year  1154. 

Though  written  in  prose,  it  contains  various  fragments  of  poetry,  of 
which  the  following  (rendered  into  modern  English),  on  the  death  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  1065,  may  be  quoted  as  an  example:  — 


'  Then  suddenly  came 
Death  the  bitter 
And  that  dear  prince  seized. 
Angels  bore 
His  steadfast  soul, 
Into  heaven's  light. 
But  the  wise  King, 
Bestowed  his  realm 
On  one  grown  great, 


On  Harold's  self, 
A  noble  Earl ! 
Who  in  all  times 
Faithfully  hearkened 
Unto  his  lord, 
In  word  and  deed, 
Nor  ever  failed 
In  aught  the  King 
Had  needed  of  him !" 


Other  early  books  were  Caedmon's  poem  ot  the  Creation,  also  in 
English,  and  Bede's  church  history  of  Britain,  written  in  Latin,  a  work 
giving  a  full  and  most  interesting  account  of  the  coming  of  Augustine 
and  his  first  preaching  in  Kent.  All  of  these  books  were  written  by 
the  monks. 

136.  Art.  —  The  English  were  skilful  workers  in  metal,  especially  in 
gold  and  silver,  and  also  in  the  illumination  of  manuscripts.1  Alfred's 
Jewel,  a  fine  specimen  of  the  blue  enamelled  gold  of  the  ninth  century, 
is  preserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.  •  It  bears  the  inscrip- 
tion :  "  Alfred  me  heht  gewurcan,"  Alfred  caused  me  to  be  worked 
\pr  made~\ . 

The  women  of  that  period  excelled  in  weaving  fine  linen  and  woollen 
cloth  and  in  embroidering  tapestry. 

1  These  illuminations  get  their  name  from  the  gold,  silver,  and  bright  colors  used 
in  the  pictures,  borders,  and  decorated  letters  with  which  the  monks  ornamented 
these  books.  For  beautiful  specimens  of  the  work,  see  Silvestre's  Paleographie. 


56  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

137.  Architecture.  —  In  architecture  no  advance  took  place  until 
very  late.     Up  to  the  year  1000  the  general  belief  that  the  world  would 
end  with  the  close  of  the  year  999  prevented  men  from  building  for 
permanence.     The  Saxon  stone  work  exhibited  in  a  few  buildings  like 
the  church-tower  of  Earl's  Barton,  Northamptonshire,  is  an  attempt 
to  imitate  timber  with  stone,  and  has  been  called  "  stone  carpentry."  1 
Edward  the  Confessor's  work  in  Westminster  Abbey  was  not  Saxon, 
but  Norman,  he  having  obtained  his  plans,  and  probably  his  builders, 
from  Normandy. 

GENERAL    INDUSTRY    AND    COMMERCE. 

138.  Farms;   Slave-Trade.  —  The  farming  of  this  period,  except 
on  the  church  lands,  was  of  the  rudest  description.     Grain  was  ground 
by  the  women  and  slaves  in  stone  hand-mills.     Later,  the  mills  were 
driven  by  wind  or  water  power.     The  principal  commerce  was  in  wool, 
lead,  tin,  and  slaves.     A  writer  of  that  time  says  he  used  to  see  long 
trains  of  young  men  and  women  tied  together,  offered  for  sale,  "for 
men  were  not  ashamed,"  he  adds,  "to  sell  their  nearest  relatives,  and 
even  their  own  children.1' 

MODE    OF    LIFE,    MANNERS,    AND    CUSTOMS. 

139.  The  Town.  —  The  first  Saxon  settlements  were  quite  generally 
on  the  line  of  the  old  Roman  roads.     They  were  surrounded  by  a  ram- 
part of  earth  set  with  a  thick  hedge  or  with  rows  of  sharp  stakes. 
Outside  this  was  a  deep  ditch.     These  places  were  called  towns  from 
"  tun,"  meaning  a  fence,  hedge,  or  other  enclosure.2 

140.  The   Hall.  —  The   buildings   in    these   towns   were   of  wood, 
Those  of  the  lords  or  chief  men  were  called  4i  halls"  from  the  fact  that 
they  consisted  mainly  of  a  hall,  or  large  room,  used  as  a  sitting,  eating 
and,  often  as  a  sleeping  room,  —  a  bundle   of  straw  or  some  skins 
thrown  on  the  floor  serving  for  beds.     There  were  no  chimneys,  but  a 
hole  in  the  roof  let  out  the  smoke.     If  the  owner  was  rich,  the  walls 
would  be  decorated  with  bright-colored   tapestry,  and   with   suits   of 
armor  and  shields  hanging  from  pegs. 

1  See  Parker's  Introduction  to  Gothic  Architecture  for  illustrations  of  this  work. 
a  One  or  more  houses  might  constitute  a  town.    A  single  farmhouse  is  still  so 
called  in  Scotland. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SAXONS.  57 

141.  Life  in  the  Hall. —  Here  in  the  evening  the  master  supped  on 
a  raised  platform  at  one  end  of  the  "  hall,"  while  his  followers  ate  at  a 
lower  table. 

The  Saxons  were  hard  drinkers  as  well  as  hard  fighters.  After  the 
meal,  while  horns  of  ale  and  mead  were  circulating,  the  minstrels,  tak- 
ing their  harps,  would  sing  songs  of  battle  and  ballads  of  wild  adven- 
ture. 

Outside  the  "  hall"  were  the  "bowers,"  or  chambers  for  the  master 
and  his  family,  and,  perhaps,  an  upper  chamber  for  a  guest,  called 
later  by  the  Normans  a  sollar,  or  sunny  room. 

If  a  stranger  approached  a  town,  he  was  obliged  to  blow  a  horn ; 
otherwise,  he  might  be  slain  as  an  outlaw. 

Here,  in  the  midst  of  rude  plenty  the  Saxons  or  Early  English  lived 
a  life  of  sturdy  independence.  They  were  rough,  strong,  outspoken, 
and  fearless.  Theirs  was  not  the  nimble  brain,  for  that  was  to  come 
with  another  people,  though  a  people  originally  of  the  same  race. 
Their  mission  was  to  lay  the  foundation ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  furnish 
the  muscle,  grit,  and  endurance,  without  which  the  nimble  brain  is  of 
little  permanent  value. 

142.  Guilds.  —  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and  cities  had  various 
associations  called  guilds  (from  gild,  a  payment  or  contribution).     The 
object  of  these  was  mutual  assistance.     The  most  important  were  the 
Peace-guilds1  and    the   Merchant-guilds.      The   former  constituted  a 
voluntary  police-force  to  preserve  order,  and  bring  thieves  to  punish- 
ment.    Each  member  contributed  a  small  sum  to  form  a  common  fund 
which  was  used  to  make  good  any  losses  incurred  by  robbery  or  fire. 
The  association  held  itself  responsible  for  the  good  behavior  of  its 
members,  and  kept  a  sharp  eye  on  strangers  and  stragglers,  who  had 
to  give  an  account  of  themselves  or  leave  the  country.     The  Merchant- 
guilds  were  organized,  apparently  at  a  late  period,  to  protect  and  extend 
trade.    After  the  Norman  Conquest  they  came  to,  be  very  wealthy  and 
influential.     In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  social  and  religious 
guilds  which  made  provision  for  feasts,  for  the  maintenance  of  religious 
services,  and  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  the  sick. 

1  Frithgilds. 


58  LEADING    FACTS   OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


V. 


"Jn  other  countries,  the  struggle  has  been  to  gain  liberty;    in  England, 
to  preserve  it."  —  ALISON. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS. 

THE    KING  versus  THE   BARONS. 
BUILDING  THE  NORMAN  SUPERSTRUCTURE. — THE  AGE  OF  FEUDALISM. 

NORMAN  SOVEREIGNS. 

William  I.,  1066-1087  Henry  I.,  1 100-1135. 

William  II.,  1087-1100.  Stephen  (House  of  Blois),  1135-1154. 

143.  Duke  William  hears  of  Harold's  Accession;   message 
to  Harold.  —  Duke  William  of  Normandy  was  in  his  park  near 
Rouen,  the  capital  of  his  dukedom,  getting  ready  for  a  hunting 
expedition,  when  the  news  was  brought  to  him  of  Harold's  acces- 
sion.    The  old  chronicler  says  "  he  stopped  short  in  his  prepara- 
tions ;  he  spoke  to  no  man,  and  no  man  dared  speak  to  him." 

At  length  he  resolved  to  send  a  message  to  the  king  of  England. 
His  demand  is  not  known ;  but  whatever  it  was,  Harold  appears 
to  have  answered  with  a  rough  refusal. 

144.  William  prepares  to  invade  England.  —  Then  William 
determined  to  appeal  to  the  sword.     During  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer of  that  year,  the  duke  was  employed  in  fitting  out  a  fleet  for 
the  invasion,  and  his   smiths   and   armorers  were    busy  making 
lances,  swords,  and  coats  of  mail.     The  Pope  favored  the  expedi- 
tion, and  presented  a  banner  blessed  by  himself,  to  be  carried  in 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  59 

the  attack ;  "  mothers,  too,  sent  their  sons  for  the  salvation  of  their 
souls." 

145.  The  Expedition  sails. — After  many  delays,  at  length  all 
was  ready,  and  at  daybreak,  Sept.  27,  1066,  William  sailed  with  a 
fleet  of  several  hundred  ships  and  a  large  number  of  transports, 
his  own  vessel  leading  the  van,  with  the  consecrated  banner  at  the 
mast-head.     His  army  consisted  of  archers  and  cavalry,  and  may 
have   numbered   between    fifty  and  sixty  thousand.      They  were 
partly  his  own  subjects,  and  partly  hired  soldiers,  or  those  who 
joined  for  the  sake  of  plunder.     He  also  carried  a  large  force  of 
smiths   and   carpenters,  with   timber  ready  cut   and  fitted  for  a 
wooden  castle. 

146.  William  lands  at  Pevensey.  —  The  next  day  the  fleet 
anchored  at  Pevensey,1  under  the  walls  of  that  old  Roman  fortress 
of  Anderida,  which  had  stood,  a  vacant  ruin,  since  the  Saxons 
stormed  it  nearly  six  hundred  years  before.     As  William  stepped 
on  shore  he  stumbled  and  fell.     "  God  preserve  us  ! "  cried  one 
of  his  men,  "this  is  a  bad  sign."     But  the  duke,  grasping  the 
pebbles  of  the  beach  with  both  his  outstretched  hands,  exclaimed, 
"  Thus  do  1  seize  the  land  !  " 

147.  Harold  in  the  North.  —  There  was,  in  fact,  no  power  to 
prevent  him  from  establishing  his  camp,  for  King  Harold  was  in 
the  north  quelling  an  invasion  headed  by  the  king  of  the  Norwe- 
gians and  his  brother  Tostig,  who  hoped  to  secure  the  throne 
for  himself.     Harold  had  just  sat  down  to  a  victory- feast,  after 
the  battle  of  Stamford  Bridge,2  when  news  was  brought  to  him  of 
the  landing  of  William.     It  was  this  fatal  want  of  unity  in  England 
which  made  the  Norman  conquest  possible.     Had  not  Harold's 
own  brother  Tostig  turned  traitorously  against  him,  or  had    the 
north  country  stood  squarely  by  the  south,  Duke  William  migh; 
have  found  his  fall  on  the  beach  an  omen  indeed  full  of  disaster. 

1   Pevensey :  see  Map  No.  7,  page  44. 
*  Stamford  Bridge,  Yorkshire. 


6O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

148.  What  William  did  after  landing.  —  As  there  was  no 
one  to  oppose  him,  William  made  a  fort  in  a  corner  of  the  old 
Roman  wall  of  Anderida,  and  then  marched  on  to  Hastings,  a  few 
miles  farther  east,  where  he  set  up  his  wooden  castle  on  that  hill 
where  the  ruins  of  a  later  stone  castle  may  still  be  seen.     Having 
done  this,  he  pillaged  the  country  in  every  direction,  until  the 
fourteenth  of  October,  the  day  of  the  great  battle. 

149.  Harold  inarches   to   meet  William.  —  Harold,   having 
gathered  what  forces  he  could,  marched  to  meet  William  at  Sen- 
lac,  a  place  midway  between  Pevensey  and  Hastings,  and  about 
five  miles  back  from  the  coast.     Here,  on  the  evening  of  the  thir- 
teenth, he  entrenched  himself  on  a  hill,  and  there  the  battle  was 
waged.     Harold  had  the  advantage  of  the  stockaded  fort  he  had 
built ;  William,  that  of  a  body  of  cavalry  and  archers,  for  the  English 
fought  on  foot  with  javelins  and  battle-axes  mainly.    The  Saxons 
spent  the  night  in  feasting  and   song;   the  Normans,  in   prayer 
and  confession. 

150.  The  Battle  (Oct.  14,  1066) .  —  On  the  morning  of  thG 
fourteenth  the  fight  began.     It  lasted  until  dark,  with  heavy  loss 
on  both  sides.     At  length  William's  strategy  carried  the  day,  and 
Harold  and  his  brave  followers  found  to  their  cost  that  then,  as 
now,  it  is  "  the  thinking  bayonet "  which  conquers.     The  English 
king  was  slain  and  every  man  of  his  chosen  troops  with  him.     A 
monkish  chronicler,  in  speaking  of  the  Conquest,  says  that  "  the 
vices  of  the  Saxons  had    made   them  effeminate  and  womanish, 
wherefore  it  came  to  pass  that,  running  against  Duke  William,  they 
lost  themselves  and  their  country  with  one,  and  that  an  easy  and 
light,  battle."  *     Doubtless  the  English  had  fallen  off  in  many  ways 
from  their  first  estate;   but  the  record  at  Senlac   (or  Hastings) 
shows  that  they  had  lost  neither  strength,  courage,  nor  endurance, 
and  a  harder  battle  or  a  longer  was  never  fought  on  British  soil. 

151.  The  Abbey  of  Battle;   Harold's  Grave. — A  few  years 
later,  the  Norman  conqueror  built  the  Abbey  of  Battle  on  the 

*  William  of  Malmesbury. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  6 1 

spot  to  commemorate  the  victory  by  which  he  gained  his  crown, 
and  to  have  perpetual  prayers  chanted  by  the  monks  over  the 
Norman  soldiers  who  had  fallen  there.  Here,  also,  tradition 
represents  him  as  having  buried  Harold's  body,  just  after  the  fight, 
under  a  heap  of  stones  by  the  seashore.  Some  months  later,  it 
is  said  that  the  friends  of  the  English  king  removed  the  remains 
to  Waltham,  near  London,  and  buried  them  in  the  church  which 
he  had  built  and  endowed  there.1  Be  that  as  it  may,  his  grave, 
wherever  it  is,  is  the  grave  of  the  old  England,  for  henceforth  a 
new  people  (though  not  a  new  race)  and  a  somewhat  modified 
form  of  government  appear  in  the  history  of  the  island. 

152.  The  Bayeux  Tapestry.  —  Several  contemporary  accounts 
of  the  battle  exist  by  both  French  and  English  writers,  but  the 
best  history  is  one  wrought  in  colors  by  a  woman's  hand,  in  the 
ocenes  of  the  famous  strip  of  canvas   known  from  the  French 
cathedral  where  it  is  still  preserved,  as  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.2 

153.  William  marches  on  London.  —  Soon  after  the  battle, 
William  advanced  on  London,  which,  terrified  by  the  flames  of 
the  Southwark  suburbs,3  which  he  fired,  and  a  little  later  cut  off 
from  help  from  the  north  by  his  besieging  army,  opened  its  gates 
to  the  conqueror,  and  surrendered  without  striking  a  blow. 

154.  William  grants  a  Charter  to  London.  —  In  return,  Wil- 
liam granted   the   city  a  charter,  or  formal  and  solemn  written 
pledge,  by  which  he  guaranteed  the  inhabitants  the  liberties  which 
they  had  enjoyed  under  Edward  the  Confessor.    That  document 
may  still  be  seen  among  the  records  in  Guildhall,4  in  London.     It 
is  a  bit  of  parchment,  hardly  bigger  than  a  man's  hand,  containing 
a  few  lines  in  English,  and  is  signed  with  William's  mark ;  for  he 
who  wielded  the  sword  so  effectually  either  could  not  or  would 

1  This  church  became  afterward  Waltham  Abbey. 

*  See  Paragraph  No.  205. 

8  Southwark,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames.  It  is  now  connected  with 
London  proper  by  London  Bridge. 

4  Guildhall :  the  City-Hall,  the  place  where  the  guilds,  or  different  corporations 
of  the  city  proper,  meet  to  transact  business. 


O2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORV 

not  handle  the  pen.  By  that  mark  all  the  past  privileges  and 
immunities  of  the  city  were  confirmed  and  protected. 

155.  The  Coronation;  William  returns  to  Normandy. — On 

the  following  Christmas  Day  (1066)  William  was  anointed  and 
crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  the  spring  he  sailed  for 
Normandy,  where  he  had  left  his  queen,  Matilda,  to  govern  in 
his  absence.  While  on  the  continent  he  intrusted  England 
to  the  hands  of  his  half-brother,  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  his 
friend,  William  Fitz-Osbern,  having  made  the  former,  Earl  of  Kent, 
and  the  latter,  of  Hereford.  During  the  next  three  years  there 
were  outbreaks  and  uprisings  in  the  lowlands  of  Cambridgeshire 
and  the  moors  of  Yorkshire,  besides  incursions  of  both  Danes  and 
Scots. 

156.  William  quells  Rebellion  in  the  North.  —  The  oppressive 
rule  of  the  regents  soon  caused  a  rebellion ;   and  in  December 
William  found  it  expedient  to  return  to   England.     In  order  to 
gain  time,  the  king  bought  off  the  Danes.     Little  by  little,  how- 
ever, the  land  was  brought  to  obedience.     By  forced  marches  in 
midwinter,  by  roads  cast  up  through  bogs,  and  by  sudden  night 
attacks,  William  accomplished  the  end  he  sought.     But  in  1069, 
news  came  of  a  fresh  revolt  in  the  north,  accompanied  by  another 
invasion  of  foreign  barbarians.      Then  William,  roused  to  terrible 
anger,  swore  by  the  "  splendor  of  God  "  that  he  would  lay  waste 
the  land.     He  made  good  his  oath.     For  a  hundred  miles  beyond 
the  river  Humber  he  ravaged  the  country,  firing  villages,  destroy- 
ing houses,  crops,  and  cattle,  and  reducing  the  wretched  people 
to  such  destitution  that  many  sold  themselves  for  slaves  to  escape 
starvation.      Having  finished   his  work   in  the  north,  he  turned 
toward  Chester,  in  the  west,  and  captured  that  city. 

157.  Hereward.  —  Every  part  of  the  land  was  now  in  William's 
power  except  an  island  in  the  swamps  of  Ely,1  in  the  east,  where 
the  Englishman  Hereward,  with  his  resolute  little  band  of  fellow- 

1  Elv,  Cambridgeshire. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  63 

countrymen,  continued  to  defy  the  power  of  the  conqueror.  "  Had 
there  been  three  more  men  like  him  in  the  island,"  said  one  of 
William's  own  men,  "  the  Normans  would  never  have  entered  it." 
But  as  there  were  not  three  more  such,  the  conquest  was  at  length 
completed. 

158.  Necessity  of  William's  Severity.  —  Fearful  as  the  woik  of 
death  had  been,  yet  even  these  pitiless  measures  were  better  than 
that  England  should  sink  into  anarchy, or  into  subjection  to  hordes 
of  Norsemen  who  destroyed  purely  out  of  love  of  destruction  and 
hatred  to  civilization  and  its  works.     For  whatever  William's  faults 
or  crimes,  his  great  object  was  the  upbuilding  of  a  government 
better  than  any  England  had  yet  seen.     Hence  his  severity,  hence 
his  elaborate  safeguards,  by  which  he  made  sure  of  retaining  his 
hold  upon  whatever  he  had  gained. 

159.  He  builds  the  Tower  of  London. — We  have  seen  that  he 
gave  London  a  charter ;  but  overlooking  the  place  in  which  that 
charter  was  kept,  he  built  the  Tower  of  London  to  hold  the  turbu- 
lent city  m  wholesome  restraint.     That  tower,  as  fortress,  palace, 
and  prison,  stands  as  the  dark  background  of  most  of  the  great 
events  in  English  history.     It  was  the  forerunner,  so  to  speak,  of 
the  multitude  of  castles  which  soon  after  rose  on  the  banks  of 
every  river,  and  on  the  summit  of  every  rocky  height  from  the 
west  hill  of  Hastings  to  the  peak  of  Derbyshire,  and  from   the 
banks  of  the  Thames  to  those  of  the  Tweed.     Side  by  side  with 
these   strongholds   there   also   rose   an  almost  equal  number  of 
monasteries,  churches  and  cathedrals. 

160.  William  confiscates  the  Land ;   Classes  of  Society.  — 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  progress  of  conquest,  the  confiscation  of 
(and  went  on.  William  had  seized  the  estates  of  Harold  and  all 
the  chief  men  associated  with  him,  to  grant  them  to  his  followers. 
In  this  way,  Bishop  Odo,  Fitz-Osbern,  and  Roger  of  Montgomery 
became  possessed  of  immense  estates  in  various  parts  of  England. 
Other  grants  were  made  by  him,  until  by  the  close  of  his  reign, 
no  great  landholder  was  left  among  the  English,  with  the  excep 


64  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

tion  of  a  very  few  who  were  thoroughly  Norman  in  their  sympa- 
thies and  in  their  allegiance. 

Two  great  classes  of  society  now  existed  in  England.  First,  the 
Norman  conquerors,  who  as  chief  tenants  or  landholders  under  the 
king  were  called  barons.  Second,  the  English  who  had  been 
reduced  to  a  subordinate  condition.  Most  of  these  now  held  their 
land  under  the  barons,  and  a  majority  of  them  were  no  longer  free. 

This  latter  class  were  called  villeins.1  They  were  bound  to 
the  soil,  and  could  be  sold  with  it,  but  not,  like  slaves,  sepa- 
rately from  it.  They  could  be  compelled  to  perform  any  menial 
service,  but  usually  held  their  plots  of  land  and  humble  cottages 
on  condition  of  ploughing  a  certain  number  of  acres  or  doing 
a  certain  number  of  days'  work  in  each  year  for  their  lord.  In 
time  they  often  obtained  the  privilege  of  paying  a  fixed  money 
rent  in  place  of  labor,  and  then  their  condition  gradually  though 
very  slowly  improved. 

161.  How  he  granted  Estates.  —  Yet  it  is  noticeable  that  in 
these  grants,  William  was  careful  not  to  give  large  possessions  to 
any  one  person  in  any  one  shire.     His  experience  in  Normandy 
had   taught   him   that   it  was  better  to  divide  than  to  concen- 
trate the  power  of  the  great  nobles,  who  were  only  too  ready  to 
plot  to  get  the  crown  for  themselves.     Thus  William  developed 
and  extended  the  feudal  system  of  land  tenure,  already  in  exist- 
ence in  outline  among  the  Saxons,  until  it  covered  every  part  of 
the  realm.     He,  however,  kept  it  strictly  subordinate  to  himself, 
and  before  the  close  of  his  reign  made  it  absolutely  so. 

162.  The  Three  Counties  Palatine.  —  The  only  exceptions  to 
these  grants  were  the  three  Counties  Palatine,2  which  defended 

1  Villein:  a  name  derived  from  the  Latin  villa,  a  country-house,  or  farm,  because 
originally  the  villein  was  a  laborer  who  had  a  share  in  the  common  land.    Our 
modern  word  "  villain  "  comes  from  the  same  source,  though  time  has  given  it  a 
totally  different  meaning. 

2  Palatine  (from  palatium,  palace),  having  rights  equal  with  the  king  in  his 
palace.     Shropshire  was  practically  a  fourth  county  palatine  until  Henry  I.    Later. 
Lancaster  was  added  to  the  list, 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  65 

the  border  country  in  the  north  and  west,  and  the  coast  on  the 
south.  To  the  earls  of  these  counties,  Chester,  Durham,  and 
Kent,  William  gave  almost  royal  power,  which  descended  in 
their  families,  thus  making  the  title  hereditary. 

163.  How  William  stopped  Assassination.  —  The  hard  rule 
of  the  Norman  nobles  caused  many  secret  assassinations.     To  put 
a  stop  to  these,  William  ordered  that  the  people  of  the  district 
where  a  murder  was  perpetrated  should  pay  a  heavy  fine  for  every 
Norman  so  slain,  it  being  assumed  that  unless  they  could  prove 
to  the  contrary,  every  man  found  murdered  was  a  Norman.1 

164.  Pope   Gregory  VII.  —  While  these  events  were  taking 
place  in  England,  Hildebrand,  the  archdeacon  who  had  urged 
Pope  Alexander  to  favor  William's  expedition,  had  ascended  the 
papal  throne,  under  the  title  of  Gregory  VII.     He  was  the  ablest, 
the  most  ambitious,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  most  far-sighted 
man  who  had  made  himself  the  supreme  head  of  the  church. 

165.  State  of  Europe;  Gregory's  Scheme  of  Reform.  —  Eu- 
rope was  at  that  time  in  a  condition  little  better  than  anarchy. 
A  perpetual  quarrel  was  going  on  between  the  barons.    The  church, 
too,  as  we  have  seen,  had  lost  much  of  its  power  for  good  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  rapidly  falling  into  obscurity  and  contempt.     Pope 
Gregory  conceived  a  scheme  of  reform  which  should  be  both  wide 
and  deep.     Like  Dunstan,  he  determined  to  correct  the  abuses 
which  had  crept  into  the  monasteries.     He  would  have  an  unmar- 
ried priesthood,  who  should  devote  themselves  body  and  soul  to 
the  interests  of  the   church.     He  would   bring  all  society  into 
submission  to  that   priesthood,  and  finally  he  would  make  the 
priesthood  itself  acknowledge  him  as  its  sole  master.     His  purpose 
in  this  gigantic  scheme  was  a  noble  one ;  it  was  to  establish  the 
unity  and  peace  of  Europe. 

166.  The  Pope  and  the  Conqueror.  —  Gregory  looked  to  Wil- 
liam for  help  in  this  matter.    The  Conqueror  was  ready  to  give  it. 

1  This  was  known  as  the  Law  of  Englishry. 


66  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

but  with  limitations.  He  promised  to  aid  in  reforming  the  Eng- 
lish church,  to  remove  inefficient  men  from  its  high  places,  to 
establish  special  ecclesiastical  courts  for  the  trial  of  church  cases, 
and  finally,  to  pay  a  yearly  tax  to  Rome ;  but  he  refused  to  take 
any  step  which  should  make  England  politically  subservient  to  the 
Pope.  On  the  contrary,  he  emphatically  declared  that  he  was 
and  would  remain  an  independent  sovereign,  and  that  the  English 
church  must  obey  him  in  preference  to  any  other  power. 

He  furthermore  laid  down  these  three  rules  :  i .  That  neither 
the  Pope,  the  Pope's  representative,  nor  letters  from  the  Pope 
should  be  received  in  England  without  his  leave.  2.  That  no 
meeting  of  church  authorities  should  be  called  or  should  take  any 
action  without  his  leave.  3.  That  no  baron  or  servant  of  his 
should  be  expelled  from  the  church  without  his  leave. 

Thus  William  alone  of  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  successfully 
withstood  the  power  of  Rome.  Henry  IV.  of  Germany  had  at- 
tempted the  same,  but  so  completely  was  he  defeated  and  humbled 
that  he  had  been  compelled  to  stand  barefooted  in  the  snow  before 
the  Pope's  palace  waiting  for  three  successive  days  for  permission 
to  enter  and  beg  forgiveness.  But  William  knew  the  independent 
temper  of  England,  and  that  he  could  depend  on  it  for  support. 

167.  William  a  Stern  but  Just  Ruler ;  New  Forest.  —  Con- 
sidering his  love  of  power  and  strength  of  will,  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam was  conspicuous  for  its  justice.  He  was  harsh  but  generally 
fair.  His  most  despotic  act  was  the  seizure  and  devastation  of  a 
tract  of  over  60,000  acres  in  Hampshire  for  a  hunting-ground, 
which  received  the  name  of  the  New  Forest.1  It  has  been  saic* 
that  William  destroyed  many  churches  and  estates  in  order  tc 
form  this  forest,  but  these  accounts  appear  to  have  been  greatly 
exaggerated.  The  real  grievance  was  not  so  much  the  appropria- 
tion of  the  land,  which  was  sterile  and  of  little  value,  but  it  was  the 

1  Forest:  as  here  used,  this  does  not  mean  a  region  covered  with  woods,  but 
simply  a  section  of  country,  partially  wooded  and  suitable  for  game,  set  apart  as  a 
royal  park  or  hunting-ground.  As  William  made  his  residence  at  Winchester,  in 
Hampshire,  he  naturally  took  land  in  that  vicinity  for  the  chase. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  6/ 

enactment  of  the  savage  Forest  Laws.  These  made  the  life  of  a 
stag  of  more  value  than  that  of  a  man,  and  decreed  that  any  one 
found  hunting  the  royal  deer  should  have  both  eyes  torn  out. 

168.  The  Great  Survey.  —  Not   quite   twenty  years   after  his 
coronation,  William  ordered  a  survey  and  valuation  to  be  made  of 
the  whole  realm  outside  of  London,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
border  counties  on  the  north.   These  appear  to  have  been  omitted 
either  because  they  were  sparsely  populated  by  a  mixed  race,  or 
for  the  reason  that  since  his  campaign  in  the  north  little  was  left 
to  record  there  but  heaps  of  ruins  and  ridges  of  grass-grown  graves. 

169.  The  Domesday  Book.  —  The  returns  of  that   survey  are 
known  as  Domesday  or  Doomsday  Book,  a  name  given,  it  is  said, 
by  the  English,  because,  like  the  Day  of  Doom,  it  spared  no  one. 

It  recorded  every  piece  of  property,  and  every  particular  con- 
cerning it.  As  the  Chronicle  indignantly  said,  not  a  rood  of 
land,  not  a  peasant's  hut,  not  an  ox,  cow,  pig,  or  even  a  hive  of 
bees,  escaped.  While  the  report  showed  the  wealth  of  the  country, 
it  also  showed  the  suffering  it  had  passed  through  in  the  revolts 
against  William.  Many  towns  had  fallen  into  decay.  .Some  were 
nearly  depopulated.  In  Edward  the  Confessor's  reign,  York  had 
1607  houses ;  at  the  date  of  the  survey,  it  had  but  967,  while  Ox- 
ford which  had  had  721  houses  had  then  only  243. 

This  census  and  assessment  proved  of  the  highest  importance  to 
William  and  his  successors.  The  people,  indeed,  said  bitterly 
that  the  king  kept  the  book  constantly  by  him,  in  order  "  that 
he  might  be  able  to  see  at  any  time  of  how  much  more  wool 
the  English  flock  would  bear  fleecing."  The  object  of  the  work, 
however,  was  not  extortion,  but  to  present  a  full  and  exact  ac- 
count of  the  financial  and  military  condition  of  the  kingdom  which 
might  be  directly  available  for  revenue  and  defence. 

170.  The  Great  Meeting,  1086.  —  In  the  midsummer  following 
the  completion  of  Domesday  Book,  William  summoned  all  the 
nobles  and  chief  landholders  of  the  realm  with  their  vassals,  num- 
bering, it  is  said,  about  sixty  tnousand,  to  meet  him  on  Salisbury 


68  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Plain,  Wiltshire.1  There  was  a  logical  connection  between  that 
summons  and  the  survey.  Each  man's  possessions  and  each  man's 
responsibility  were  now  known.  Thus  Domesday  Book  prepared 
the  way  for  the  assembly,  and  for  the  action  that  was  to  be  taken 
there.  The  place  chosen  was  historic  ground.  On  that  field 
William  had  once  reviewed  his  victorious  troops,  and  in  front  of 
the  encampment  rose  the  hill  of  Old  Sarum  scarred  with  the 
remains  of  Roman  entrenchments.  Stonehenge  was  near.  It  was 
within  sight  of  it,  and  of  the  burial  mounds  of  those  primeval  races 
which  had  there  had  a  home  during  the  childhood  of  the  world, 
that  the  Norman  sovereign  finished  his  work. 

171.  The  Oath  of  Allegiance.  — There  William  demanded  and 
received  the  sworn  allegiance  not  only  of  every  lord,  but  of  every 
lord's  free  vassal  or  tenant,  from  Cornwall  to  the  Scottish  borders. 
By  that  act,  England  was  made  one.     By  it,  it  was  settled  that 
every  man  in  the  realm,  of  whatever  condition,  was  bound  first  of 
all  to  fight  for  the  king,  even  if  in  doing  so  he  had  to  fight  against 
his  own  lord. 

172.  What  William  had  done.  — A  score  of  years  before,  Wil- 
liam had  landed,  seeking  a  throne  to  which  no  human  law  had 
given  him  any  just  claim,  but  to  which  Nature  had  elected  him  by 
preordained  decree  when  she  endowed  him  with  power  to  take, 
power  to  use,  and  power  to  hold.     It  was  fortunate  for  England 
that  he  came  ;  for  out  of  chaos,  or  affairs  fast  drifting  to  chaos,  his 
strong   hand,  clear   brain,  and  resolute  purpose    brought   order, 
beauty,  safety,  and  stability,  so  that  we  may  say  with  Guizot,  that 
"  England  owes  her  liberties  to  her  having  been  conquered  by  the 
Normans." 

173.  William's  Death.  —  In  less  than  a  year  from  that  time, 
William  went  to  Normandy  to  quell  an  invasion  led  by  his  eldest 

l  The  Saxon  seat  of  government  had  been  at  Winchester  (Hampshire)  ;  under 
Edward  the  Confessor  and  Harold  it  was  transferred  to  Westminster  (London) ;  but 
the  honor  was  again  restored  to  Winchester  by  William  who  made  it  his  principal 
residence.  This  was  perhaps  the  reason  why  he  chose  Salisbury  Plain  (the  nearest 
open  region1)  for  the  meeting.  It  was  held  where  the  modern  city  of  Salisbury  stands. 


THE    COMING    OF   THE    NORMANS.  69 

son,  Robert.  As  he  rode  down  a  steep  street  in  Mantes,  his 
horse  stumbled,  and  he  received  a  fatal  injury.  He  was  carried 
to  the  priory  of  St.  Gervase,  just  outside  the  city  of  Rouen.  Early 
in  the  morning  he  was  awakened  by  the  great  cathedral  bell.  "  It 
is  the  hour  of  praise,"  his  attendant  said  to  him,  "when  the  priests 
give  thanks  for  the  new  day."  William  lifted  up  his  hands  in 
prayer  and  expired. 

174.  His  Burial.  —  His  remains  were  taken  for  interment  to 
St.  Stephen's  Church,1  which  he  had  built.    As  they  were  preparing 
to  let  down  the  body  into  the  grave,  a  man  suddenly  stepped  for- 
ward and  forbade  the  burial.      William,  he  said,  had  taken  the 
land,  on  which  the  church  stood,  from  his  father  by  violence.     He 
demanded  payment.     The  corpse  was  left  on  the  bier,  and  inquiry 
instituted,  and  not  until  the  debt  was  discharged  was  the  body 
lowered  to  its  last  resting-place.     "Thus,"  says  the  old  chronicle, 
"  he  who  had  been  a  powerful  king,  and  the  lord  of  so  many  terri- 
tories, possessed  not  then  of  all  his  lands  mf^e  than  seven  feet  of 
earth,"  and  not  even  that  until  the  cash  was  paid  for  it ! 

175.  Summary.  —  The  results  of  the  conquest  may  be  thus 
summed  up:   i.  It  was  not  the  subjugation  of  the  English  by  a 
different  race,  but  rather  a  victory  won  for  their  advantage  by  a 
branch  of  their  own  race.2     It  brought  England  into  closer  con- 
tact  with   the   higher   civilization    of   the   continent,    introduced 
fresh  intellectual  stimulus,  and  gave  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  a  more 
progressive  spirit.     2.  It  modified  the  English  language   by  the 
influence  of  the  Norman  French  element,  thus  giving  it  greatei 
flexibility,  refinement,  and  elega.xe  of  expression.     3.  It  substi 
tuted  for  the  fragile  and  decaying  structures  of  wood  built  by 
the  Saxons,  noble  edifices  in  stone,  the  cathedral  and  the  castle, 
both   being   essentially   Norman.      4.   It   hastened   consolidating 
influences  already  at  work,  developed  and  completed  the  feudal 

1  Caen,  Normandy. 

2  It  has  already  been  shown  that  Norman,  Saxon,  and  Dane  were  originally 
branches  of  the  Teutonic  or  German  race.    See  Paragraphs  Nos.  105  and  114. 


7O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

form  of  land  tenure ; *  reorganized  the  church,  and  denned  the 
relation  of  the  state  to  the  papal  power.  5.  It  abolished  the 
four  great  earldoms,2  which  had  been  a  constant  source  of  weak- 
ness, danger,  and  division ;  it  put  an  end  to  the  Danish  invasions ; 
and  it  established  a  strong  monarchical  government  to  which 
the  nobles  and  their  vassals  were  compelled  to  swear  allegiance. 
6.  It  made  no  radical  changes  in  the  English  laws,  but  enforced 
impartial  obedience  to  them  among  all  classes. 

WILLIAM    RUFUS.3— 1087-1100. 

176.  William  the  Conqueror's  Bequest.  —  William  the   Con- 
queror left  three  sons,  —  Robert,  William  Rufus,  and  Henry.     He 
also  left  a  daughter,  Adela,  who  married  a  powerful  French  noble- 
man, Stephen,  Count  of  Blois.     On  his  death-bed,  William  be- 
queathed Normandy  to  Robert.    He  expressed  a  wish  that  William 
Rufus  should  become  ruler  over  England,  while  to  Henry  he  left 
five  thousand  pounds  of  silver,  with  the  prediction  that  he  would 
ultimately  be  the  greatest  of  them  all.     Before  his  eyes  were  closed, 
the  sons  hurried  away — William  Rufus  to  seize  the  realm  of  Eng- 
land, Henry  to  get  possession  of  his  treasure.     Robert  was  not 
present.     His  recent  rebellion  would  alone  have  been  sufficient 
reason  for  allotting  to  him  the  lesser  portion ;  but  even  had  he 
deserved  the  sceptre,  William  knew  that  it  required  a  firmer  hand 
than  his  to  hold  it. 

177.  Precarious  State  of  England.  —  France  was  simply  an 
aggregation  of  independent  and  mutually  hostile  dukedoms.     The 
reckless  ambition  of  the  Norman  leaders  threatened  to  bring  England 
into  the  same  condition.     During  the  twenty-one  years  of  William's 
reign  they  had  perpetually  tried  to  break  loose  from  his  restrain- 
ing power.     It  was  certain,  then,  that  the  news  of  his  death  would 
be  the  signal  for  still  more  desperate  attempts. 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  200.  2  See  Paragraph  No.  107. 

8  William  Rufus,  William  the  Red:    a  nickname  probably  derived  from  his  red 
face. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  Jl 

178.  Character  of  William  Rufus.  —  Rufus  had  his  father's 
ability  and  resolution,  but  none   of  his  father's  conscience.     As 
the  historian  of  that  time  declared,  "  He  feared  God  but  little, 
man  not  at  all."     He  had  Caesar's  faith  in  destiny,  and  said  to  a 
boatman  who  hesitated  to  set  off  with  him  in  a  storm  at  his  com- 
mand, "  Did  you  ever  hear  of  a  king's  being  drowned?" 

179.  His  Struggle  with  the  Barons.  —  During  the  greater  part 
of  the  thirteen  years  of  his  reign  he  was  at  war  with  his  barons. 
It   was   a   battle   of  centralization  against  disintegration.     "  Let 
every  man,"  said  he,  "  who  would  not  be  branded  infamous  and 
a  coward,  whether  he  live  in  town  or  country,  leave  everything 
and  come  to  me." 

In  answer  to  that  appeal,  the  English  rallied  around  their  Nor- 
man sovereign,  and  gained  the  day  for  him  under  the  walls  of 
Rochester  Castle,  Kent.  Of  the  two  evils,  the  tyranny  of  one  or 
the  tyranny  of  many,  the  first  seemed  to  them  preferable. 

180.  William's  Method  of  raising  Money;  he  defrauds  the 
Church.  —  If  in  some  respects. William  the  Conqueror  had  been 
a  harsh  ruler,  his  son  was  worse.     His  brother  Robert  had  mort- 
gaged Normandy  to  him  in  order  to  get  money  to  join  the  first 
crusade.1     The  king  raised  it  by  the  most  oppressive  and  unscru- 
pulous means. 

William's  most  trusted  counsellor  was  Ranulf  Flambard.2  Flam- 
bard  had  brains  without  principle.  He  devised  a  system  of  plun- 
dering both  church  and  people  in  the  king's  interest.  Lanfranc, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died  three  years  after  William's  acces- 
sion. Through  Flambard's  advice,  the  king  left  the  archbishopric 


1  Crusade  (Latin  crux,  the  cross)  :  the  crusades  were  a  series  of  eight  military 
expeditions  undertaken  by  the  Christian  powers  of  Europe  to  recover  Jerusalem 
and  the  Holy  Land  from  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans.    They  received  their 
name  from  the  badge  of  the  cross  worn  by  the  soldiers.    The  first  crusade  was 
undertaken  in  1095,  and  the  last  in  1270.    Their  effects  wiH  be  fully  considered 
under  Richard  I.,  who  took  part  in  them. 

2  Flambard :  a  nickname ;  the  torch,  or  firebrand. 


/2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

vacant,  and  appropriated  its  revenues  to  himself.     He  practised 
the  same  course  with  respect  to  every  office  of  the  church. 

181.  The  King  makes  Anselm  Archbishop. — While  this  pro- 
cess of  systematized  robbery  was  going  on,  the  king  fell  suddenly  ill. 
In  his  alarm  lest  death  was  at  hand,  he  determined  to  make  repara- 
tion to  the  defrauded  and  insulted  priesthood.     He  invited  Anse\m, 
a  noted  French  scholar,  to  accept  the  archbishopric.     Anselm,  who 
was  old  and  feeble,  declined,  saying  that  he  and  the  king  could 
not  work  together.     "  It  would  be,"  said  he,  "  like  yoking  a  sheep 
and  a  bull."    But  the  king  would  take  no  refusal.    Calling  Anselm 
to  his  bedside,  he  forced  the  staff  of  office  into  his  hands.     When 
the  king  recovered,  he  resumed  his  old  practices  and  treated 
Anselm  with  such  insult,  that  he  finally  left  the  country. 

182.  William's  Merit.  —  William's  one  merit  was  that  he  kept 
England  from  being  devoured  piecemeal  by  the  Norman  barons, 
who  regarded  her,  as  a  pack  of  hounds,  in  full  chase,  regard  the 
hare  about  falling  into  their  rapacious  jaws.     Like  his  father,  he 
insisted  on  keeping  the  English  church  independent  of  the  ever- 
growing power  of  Rome.     In  both  cases  his  motives  were  purely 
selfish,  but  the  result  to  the  country  was  good. 

183.  His  Death.  —  In   noo  his  power  came  suddenly  to  an 
end.     He  had  gone  in  the  morning  to  hunt  in  the  New  Forest 
with  his  brother  Henry.     He  was  found  lying  dead  among  the 
bushes,  pierced  by  an  arrow  shot  by  an  unknown  hand.     William's 
character  speaks  in  his  deeds.     It  was  hard,  cold,  despotic,  yet  in 
judging  it  we  should  consider  the  words  of  Fuller,  "  No  pen  hath 
originally  written  the  life  of  this  king  but  what  was  made  with  a 
monkish  pen-knife,  and  no  wonder  if  his  picture  seem  bad,  which 
was  thus  drawn  by  his  enemy." 

184.  Summary.  —  Notwithstanding  William's  oppression  of  both 
church  and  people,  his  reign  checked  the  revolt  of  the  baronage 
and  prevented  the  kingdom  from  falling  into  anarchy  like  thai 
existing  on  the  continent. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  73 

V 

HENRY    I.  —  1100-1135. 

185.  Henry's  Charter.  —  Henry,  third  son  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, was  the  first  of  the  Norman  kings  who  was  born  and  edu- 
cated in  England.     Foreseeing  a  renewal  of  the  contest  with  the 
barons,  he  issued  a  charter !  of  liberties  on  his  accession,  by  which 
he  bound  himself  to  reform  the  abuses  which  had  been  practised 
by  his  brother  William  Rufus.     The  king  sent  a  hundred  copies 
of  this  important  document  to  the  leading  abbots  and  bishops  for 
preservation  in  their  respective  monasteries  and  cathedrals.     As 
this  charter  was  the  earliest  written  and  formal  guarantee  of  good 
government  ever  given  by  the  crown  to  the  nation,  it  marks  an 
important  epoch  in  English  history.     It  may  be  compared  to  the 
platforms  or  statements  of  principles  issued  by  our  modern  politi- 
cal parties.     It  was  a  virtual  admission  that  the  time  had  come 
when  even  a  Norman  sovereign  could  not  dispense  with  the  sup- 
port of  the  country.     It  was  therefore  an  admission  of  the  truth 
that  while  a  people  can  exist  without  a  king,  no  king  can  exist 
without  a  people.     Furthermore,  this  charter  established  a  prece- 
dent for  those  which  were  to  follow,  and  which  reached  a  final 
development  in  the  Great  Charter  wrested  from  the  unwilling  hand 
of  King  John  somewhat  more  than  a  century  later.     Henry  fur- 
ther strengthened  his  positiori  with  his   English  subjects  by  his 
marriage  with   Maud,  niece  of  the    Saxon   Edgar,  a  direct  de- 
scendant of  King  Alfred. 

186.  The  Appointment  of  Bishops  settled.  —  Henry  also  re- 
called Anselm  and  reinstated  him  in  his  office.     But  the  peace 
was  of  short  duration.     The  archbishop  insisted  with  the  Pope 
that  the  power  of  appointment  of  bishops  should  be  vested  wholly 

J  Charter  (literally,  parchment  or  paper  on  which  anything  may  be  written)  :  a 
royal  charter  is  a  writing  bearing  the  king's  seal  by  which  he  confers  or  secures 
certain  rights  and  privileges  to  ftiose  to  whom  it  is  granted.  Henry's  charter 
guaranteed :  i.  The  rights  of  the  church  (which  William  Rufus  had  constantly  vio- 
lated). 2.  The  rights  of  the  nobles  and  landholders  against  extortion.  3.  The 
right  of  all  classes  to  be  governed  by  the  old  English  law  with  William  the  Con- 
queror's improvements. 


74  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

in  Rome.  The  king  was  equally  determined  that  such  appoint- 
ments should  spring  from  himself.  "  No  one,"  said  he,  "  shall 
remain  in  my  land  who  will  not  do  me  homage."  The  quarrel 
was  eventually  settled  by  compromise.  The  Pope  was  to  invest 
the  bishop  with  the  ring  and  crozier,  or  pastoral  staff  of  office,  as 
emblems  of  the  spiritual  power ;  the  king,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
to  grant  the  lands  from  which  the  bishop  drew  his  revenues,  and 
in  return  was  to  receive  his  homage  or  oath  of  allegiance.  This 
acknowledgment  of  royal  authority  by  the  church  was  of  great 
importance,  since  it  gave  the  king  power  as  feudal  lord  to  demand 
from  each  bishop  his  quota  of  fully  equipped  knights  or  cavalry 
soldiers.1 

187.  Henry's  Quarrel  with  Robert.  — While  this  church  ques- 
tion was  in  dispute,  Henry  had  still  more  pressing  matters  to 
attend  to.  His  elder  brother  Robert  had  invaded  England  and 
demanded  the  crown.  The  greater  part  of  the  Norman  nobles 
supported  this  claim ;  but  the  English  people  held  to  Henry. 
Finally,  in  consideration  of  a  heavy  money  payment,  Robert 
agreed  to  return  to  Normandy  and  leave  his  brother  in  full  posses- 
sion of  the  realm.  On  his  departure,  Henry  resolved  to  drive  out 
the  prominent  nobles  who  had  aided  Robert.  Of  these,  Robert  of 
Belesme,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  was  the  leader.  With  the  aid  of 
the  English,  who  hated  him  for  his  cruelty,  the  earl  was  at  last 
compelled  to  leave  the  country.  He  fled  to  Normandy,  and,  in 
violation  of  a  previous  agreement,  was  received  by  Henry's  brother 
Robert.  Upon  that,  Henry  declared  war,  and,  crossing  the  Chan- 
nel, fought  the  battle  of  Tinchebrai,2  by  which  he  conquered  and 
held  Normandy  as  completely  as  Normandy  had  once  conquered 
England.  The  king  carried  his  brother  captive  to  Wales,  and 
kept  him  in  prison  during  his  life  in  Cardiff  Castle.  This  ended 
the  contest  with  the  nobles.  By  his  uprightness,  his  decision,  his 

1  See  note  on  Clergy,  Paragraph  No.  200. 

2  Tinchebrai,   Normandy,  about  midway  between  Caen  and  Avranches.    See 
Map  No.  8,  page  88. 


THE    COMING    OF    THE    NORMANS.  75 

courage,  Henry  fairly  won  the  honorable  title  of  the  "  Lion  of 
Justice  "  ;  for,  as  the  Chronicle  records,  "  No  man  durst  mis-do 
against  another  in  his  time." 

188.  Summary.  —  The  three  leading  points  of  Henry's  reign 
are:   i.  The  self-limitation  of  the  royal  power  embodied  in  the 
charter  of  liberties.     2.  The  settlement  of  old  disputes  between 
the  king  and  the  church.     3.  The  banishment  of  the  chief  of  the 
mutinous  barons,  and  the  victory  of  Tinchebrai,  with  its  results. 

STEPHEN.  — 1 135-1 154. 

189.  The  Rival  Candidates.  — With  Henry's  death  two  candi- 
dates presented  themselves  for  the  throne,  —  Henry's  daughter, 
Matilda  (for  he  left  no  lawful  son),  and  his  nephew,  Stephen.     In 
France,  the  custom  of  centuries  had  determined  that  the  crown 
should  never  descend  to  a  female ;  and  in  an  age  when  the  sover- 
eign was  expected  to  lead  his  army  in  person,  it  certainly  was  not 
expedient  that  a  woman  should  hold  a  position  one  of  whose  chief 
duties  she  could  not  discharge.      This   French  custom  had,  of 
course,  no  force  in  England ;  but  the  Norman  nobles  must  have 
recognized  its  reasonableness ;    or  if  not,  the  people  did.1     Four 
years  after  Stephen's  accession    Matilda  landed  in  England  and 
claimed  the  crown.     The  East  of  England  stood  by  Stephen,  the 
West  by  Matilda.     For  the  sake  of  promoting  discord,  and  through 
discord  their  own  private  ends,  part  of  the  barons  gave  their  sup- 
port to  Matilda,  while  the  rest  refused,  as  they  said,  to   "  hold 
their  estates  under  a  distaff."     The  fatal  defect  in  the  new  king 
was  the  absence  of  executive  ability.     Following  the  example  of 
Henry,  he  issued  two  charters  or  pledges  of  good  government ; 

1  Before  Henry's  death,  the  baronage  had  generally  sworn  to  support  Matilda 
(commonly  called  the  Empress  Matilda,  or  Maud,  from  her  marriage  to  the 
Emperor  Henry  V.  of  Germany;  later,  she  married  Geoffrey  of  Anjou).  But 
Stephen,  with  the  help  of  London  and  the  church,  declared  himself  "  elected  king 
by  the  assent  of  the  clergy  and  the  people"  Many  of  the  barons  now  gave  Stephen 
their  support. 


76  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

but  without  authority  to  carry  them  out,  they  proved  simply  waste 
paper. 

190.  The  Battle  of  the  Standard.  —  David  I. -of  Scotland 
Matilda's  uncle,  espoused  her  cause,  and  invaded  England  with  a 
powerful  force.     He  was  met  at  North  Allerton,  in  Yorkshire,  by 
the  party  of  Stephen,  and  the  battle  of  the  Standard  was  fought. 
The  leaders   of  the  English  were  both  churchmen,  who  showed 
that   on   occasion   they  could  fight  -as  vigorously  as  they  could 
pray.     The  standard  consisted  of  four  consecrated  banners,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross.    This  was  set  up  on  a  wagon,  on  which  one 
of  the  bishops  stood.     The  sight  of  this  sacred  standard  made  the 
English  invincible.     After  a  fierce  contest,  the  Scots  were  driven 
from  the  field.     It  is  said  that  this  was  the  first  battle  in  which 
the  English  peasants  used  the  long-bow;    they  had  taken  the 
hint,  perhaps,  from  the  Normans  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.     Some 
years  later,  their  skill  in  foreign  war  made  that  weapon  as  famous 
as  it  was  effective. 

191.  Civil  War.  —  For  fifteen  years  following,  the  country  was 
torn  by  civil  war.     While  it  raged,  fortified  castles,  which,  under 
William  the  Conqueror,  had  been  built  and  occupied  by  the  king 
only,   or  by  those  whom   he   could   trust,   now  arose   on   every 
side.      These   became,  as   the   Anglo-Saxon   Chronicle   declares, 
"very  nests  of  devils  and  dens  of  thieves."     More  than  a  thou- 
sand of  these  castles,  it  is  said,  were  built.    The  armed  bands  who 
inhabited  them  levied  tribute  on  the  whole  country  around.     Not 
satisfied  with  that,  they  seized  those  who  were  suspected  of  having 
property,  and,  to  use  the  words  of  the  Chronicle  again,  "  tortured 
them  with  pains  unspeakable ;  for  some  they  hung  up  by  the  feet 
and  smoked  with  foul  smoke ;  others  they  crushed  in  a  narrow 
chest  with  sharp  stones.     About  the  heads  of  others  they  bound 
knotted  cords  until  they  went  into  the  brain."     "  Thousands  died 
of  hunger,  the  towns  were  burned,  and  the  soil  left  unfilled.     By 
such  deeds  the  land  was  ruined  ;  and  men  said  openly  that  Christ 
and  his  saints  were  asleep."    The  sleep,  however,  was  not  always 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  77 

to  last  ;  for  in  the  next  reign,  Justice,  in  the  person  of  Henry  II., 
effectually  vindicated  her  power.  The  strife  for  the  crown  con- 
tinued till  the  last  year  of  Stephen's  reign,  when,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Wallingford,1  it  was  agreed  that  Matilda's  son  Henry  should  suc- 
ceed him. 

192.  Summary.  —  Stephen  was  the  last  of  the  Norman  kings. 
Their  reign  had  covered  nearly  a  century.  The  period  began  in 
conquest  and  usurpation  ;  it  ended  in  gloom.  We  are  not,  how- 
ever, to  judge  it  by  Stephen's  reign  alone,  but  as  a  whole.  Thus 
considered,  it  shows  many  points  of  advance  over  the  preceding 
period.  Finally,  even  Stephen's  reign  was  not  all  loss  since  we 
find  that  out  of  the  "war,  wickedness,  and  waste  "  of  his 
misgovernment  came  a  universal  desire  for  peace  through  law. 
Thus  indirectly,  his  very  inefficiency  prepared  the  way  for  future 
reforms. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    NORMAN    PERIOD.—  1066-1154. 

I.  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV. 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART.  —  V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE.  —  VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

193.  The  King.  —  We  have  seen  that  the  Saxons,  or  Early  English 
rulers,  in   the   case   of  Egbert  and  his  successors,  styled   themselves 
"  Kings   of   the   English,1'   or  leaders  of   a  race    or    people.      The 
Norman  sovereigns  made  no  immediate  change  in  this  title,  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  William,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  claimed  the 
whole  of  the  country  as  his  own  by  right  of  conquest.     For  this  reason 
he  and  his  Norman  successors  might  properly  have  called  themselves 
"  Kings  of  England";  that  is,  supreme  owners  of  the  soil  and  rulers 
over  it,  a  title  which  was  formally  assumed  about  fifty  years  later  (in 
John's  reign). 

194.  The  National  Council.  —  Associated  with  the  king  in  gov- 
ernment, was  the  Great  or  National  Council,  made  up  of,  first,  the  arch- 

1  Wallingford,  Berkshire. 


/8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

bishops,  bishops,  and  abbots ;  and  second,  the  earls  and  barons ;  that 
is,  of  all  the  great  landholders  holding  directly  from  the  crown.  The 
National  Council  usually  met  three  times  a  year,  —  at  Christmas,  Easter, 
and  Whitsuntide.  All  laws  were  held  to  be  made  by  the  king,  acting 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  this  council,  but  practically,  the  king 
alone  often  enacted  such  laws  as  he  saw  fit.  When  a  new  sovereign 
came  to  the  throne,  it  was  with  the  consent  or  by  the  election  of  the 
National  Council,  but  their  choice  was  generally  limited  to  some  one  of 
the  late  king's  sons,  and  unless  there  was  good  reason  for  making  a  dif- 
ferent selection,  the  oldest  was  chosen.  Finally,  the  right  of  imposing 
taxes  rested  theoretically,  at  least,  in  the  king  and  Council,  but,  in  fact, 
the  king  himself  frequently  levied  them.  This  action  of  the  king  was 
a  cause  of  constant  irritation  and  of  frequent  insurrection. 

195.  The  Private  or  King's  Council.  —  There  was  also  a  second 
and  permanent  council,  called  the  King's  Council.     The  three  leading 
officers  of  this  were,  the  Chief  Justice,  who  superintended  the  execution 
of  the  laws,  represented  the  king,  and  ruled  for  him  during  his  ab- 
sence from  the  country.     Second,  the  Lord  Chancellor  (so  called  from 
cancelli,  the  screen  behind  which  he  sat  with  his  clerks),  who  acted  as 
the  king's  adviser  and  confidential  secretary,  and  as  keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal,  with  which  he  stamped  all  important  papers.1     Third,  the  Lord 
High  Treasurer,  who  took  charge  of  the  king's  revenue,  received  all 
moneys  due  the  crown,  and  kept  the  king's  treasure  in  the  vaults  at 
Winchester  or  Westminster. 

196.  Tallies.  —  All  accounts  were  kept  by  the  Treasurer  on  tallies 
or  small  sticks,  notched  on  the  opposite  sides  to  represent  different  sums. 
These  were  split  lengthwise.     One  was  given  as  a  receipt  to  the  sheriff. 
or  other  person  paying  in  money  to  the  treasury,  while  the  duplicate  of 
this  tally  was  held  by  the  Treasurer.     This  primitive  method  of  keep- 
ing royal  accounts  remained  legally  in  force  until  1785,  in  the  reign  of 
George  III. 

197.  Curia  Regis,2  or  the  King's  Court  of  Justice.  —  The  Chief 

1  The  Chancellor  was  also  called  the  "  Keeper  of  the  King's  Conscience,"  be- 
cause intrusted  with  the  duty  of  redressing  those  grievances  of  the  king's  subjects 
which  required  royal  interference.    The  Court  of  Chancery,  mentioned  in  note  i,  to 
Paragraph  No.  197,  f  ~ew  out  of  this  office. 

2  Curia  Regis :    this  name  was  given,  at  different  times,  first,  to  the  National 
Council;  second,  to  the  King's  Private  Council;  and  lastly,  to  the  High  Court  of 
Justice,  consisting  of  members  of  the  Private  Council. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  79 

Justice  and  Chancellor  were  generally  chosen  by  the  king  from  among 
the  clergy ;  first,  because  the  clergy  were  men  of  education,  while  the 
barons  were  not ;  and  next,  because  it  was  not  expedient  to  intrust  too 
much  power  to  the  barons.  These  officials,  with  the  other  members 
of  the  Private  Council,  constituted  the  King's  High  Court  of  Justice. 
It  followed  the  king  as  he  moved  from  place  to  place,  to  hear  and  decide 
cases  carried  up  by  appeal  from  the  county  courts,  together  with  other 
questions  of  importance.1  In  local  government,  the  country  remained 
under  the  Normans  essentially  the  same  that  it  had  been  before  the 
conquest.  The  king  continued  to  be  represented  in  each  county  by  an 
officer  called  the  sheriff,  who  collected  the  taxes  and  enforced  the  laws. 

198.  Trial  by  Battle.  —  In  the  administration  of  justice,  Trial  by 
Battle  was  introduced  in  addition  to  the  Ordeal  of  the  Saxons.     This 
was  a  duel  in  which  each  of  the  contestants  appealed  to  Heaven  to  give 
him   the   victory,  it  being  believed   that   the  right   would  vanquish. 
Noblemen  2  fought  on  horseback  in  full  armor,  with  sword,  lance,  and 
battle-axe ;  common  people  fought  on  foot  with  clubs.     In  both  cases 
the  combat  was  in  the  presence  of  judges  and  might  last  from  sunrise 
until  the  stars  appeared.     Priests  and  women  had  the  privilege  of  being 
represented  by  champions,  who  fought  for  them.     Trial  by  battle  was 
claimed  and  allowed  by  the  court  (though  the  combat  did  not  come  off) 
as  late  as  1817,  reign  of  George  III.     This  custom  was  finally  abolished 
in  1819.8 

199.  Divisions  of   Society.  —  The  divisions  of  society  remained 
after  the  conquest  nearly  as  before,  but  the  Saxon  orders  of  nobility, 

1  The  King's  High  Court  of  Justice  (Curia  Regis)  was  divided  about  1215  into 
three  distinct  courts,     i.   The  Exchequer  Court  (so  called  from  the  chequered 
cloth  which  covered  the  table  of  the  court,  and  which  was  probably  made  useful  in 
counting  money),  which  dealt  with  cases  of  finance  and  revenue.    2.  The  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  which  had  jurisdiction  in  civil  suits  between  subject  and  subject. 
3.  The  Court  of  King's  Bench,  which  transacted  the  remaining  business,  both  civil 
and  criminal,  and  had  special  jurisdiction  over  all  inferior  courts  and  civil  cor- 
porations. 

Later,  a  fourth  court,  that  of  Chancery  (see  Paragraph  No.  195,  and  note),  over 
which  the  Lord  Chancellor  presided,  was  established  as  a  court  of  appeal  and 
equity,  to  deal  with  cases  where  the  common  law  gave  no  relict. 

2  See  Shakespeare's  Richard  II.,  Act  I.  scenes  I  and  3;  also  Scott's  Ivanhoe, 
Chapter  XLI II. 

3  Trial  by  battle  might  be  demanded  in  cases  of  chivalry  or  honor,  in  criminal 
actions  and  in  civil  suits.     The  last  were  tought  not  by  the  disputants  themselves 
but  by  champions. 


8O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

with  a  few  very  rare  exceptions,  were  deprived  of  their  rank,  and  their 
estates  were  given  to  the  Normans. 

It  is  important  to  notice  here  the  marked  difference  between  the  new 
or  Norman  nobility  and  that  of  France. 

In  England,  a  man  was  considered  noble  because,  under  William 
and  his  successors,  he  was  a  member  of  the  National  Council,  or,  in  the 
case  of  an  earl,  because  he  represented  the  king  in  the  government  of 
a  county  or  earldom. 

His  position  did  not  exempt  him  from  taxation,  nor  did  his  rank 
descend  to  more  than  one  of  his  children.  In  France,  on  the  contrary, 
the  aristocracy  were  noble  by  birth,  not  office  ;  they  were  generally  ex- 
empt from  taxation,  thus  throwing  the  whole  of  that  burden  on  the 
people,  and  their  rank  descended  to  all  their  children. 

During  the  Norman  period  a  change  was  going  on  among  the  slaves, 
whose  condition  gradually  improved.  On  the  other  hand  many  who 
had  been  free  now  sank  into  that  state  of  villeinage  which,  as  it  bound 
them  to  the  soil,  was  but  one  remove  from  actual  slavery. 

The  small,  free  landholders  who  still  existed  were  mostly  in  the  old 
Danish  territory  north  of  Watling-street,  or  in  Kent  in  the  South. 

200.  Tenure  of  Land  (Military  Service,  Feudal  Dues,  Na- 
tional Militia).  —  All  land  was  held  directly  or  indirectly  from  the 
king  on  condition  of  military  or  other  service.  The  number  of  chief- 
tenants  who  derived  their  title  from  the  crown,  including  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries,  was  probably  about  1500.  These  constituted  the  Norman 
barons.  The  under-tenants  were  about  8000,  and  consisted  chiefly  of 
the  English  who  had  been  driven  out  from  their  estates.  Every  holder 
of  land  was  obliged  to  furnish  the  king  a  fully  armed  and  mounted 
soldier,  to  serve  for  forty  days  during  the  year  for  each  piece  of  land 
bringing  £20  annually,  or  about  $2000  in  modern  money x  (the  pound 
of  that  day  probably  representing  twenty  times  that  sum  now).  All 
chief-tenants  were  also  bound  to  attend  the  king's  Great  Council  three 
times  a  year,  —  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide. 

Feudal  Dues  or  Taxes.  Every  free  tenant  was  obliged  to  pay  a 
sum  of  money  to  the  king  or  baron  from  whom  he  held  his  land,  on 
three  special  occasions.  I.  To  ransom  his  lord  from  captivity  in  case 
he  was  made  a  prisoner  of  war.  2.  To  defray  the  expense  of  making 

1  This  amount  does  not  appear  to  have  been  fully  settled  until  the  period  follow- 
ing the  Norman  kings,  but  the  principle  was  recognized  by  William. 


WASTE     OR 
UNTILLED     LAND 


COMMON      FIELDS 


A  MANOR  OR  TOWNSHIP  HELD  BY  A  LORD,  NORMAN  PERIOD. 


The  inhabitants  of  a  manor,  or  the  estate  of  a  lord,  were :  i.  The  lord  him- 
self, or  his  representative,  who  held  his  estate  on  condition  of  furnishing  the  king 
a  certain  number  of  armed  men.  (See  Paragraphs  160  and  200.)  2.  The  lord's 
personal  followers,  who  lived  with  him,  and  usually  a  parish  priest  or  a  number  of 
monks.  3.  The  villeins,  bound  to  the  soil,  who  could  not  leave  the  manor,  were 
not  subject  to  military  duty,  and  who  paid  rent  in  labor  or  produce;  there  might 
also  be  a  few  slaves,  but  this  last  class  gradually  rose  to  the  partial  freedom  of 
villeinage.  4.  Certain  soke-men  or  free  tenants,  who  were  subject  to  military  duty, 
but  were  not  bound  to  remain  on  the  manor,  and  who  paid  a  fixed  rent  in  money, 
or  otherwise. 

Next  to  the  manor-house  (where  courts  were  also  held)  the  most  important 
buildings  were  the  church  (used  sometimes  for  markets  and  town  meetings)  ;  the 
lord's  mill  (if  there  was  a  stream),  in  which  all  tenants  must  grind  their  grain  and 
pay  for  the  grinding;  and  finally,  the  cottages  of  the  tenants,  gathered  in  a  village 
near  the  mill. 

The  land  was  divided  as  follows :  i.  The  demesne  (or  domain)  surrounding 
the  manor-house.  This  was  strictly  private — the  lord's  ground.  2.  The  land  out- 
8oa 


side  the  demesne,  suitable  for  cultivation.  This  was  let  in  strips,  usually  of  thirty 
acres,  but  was  subject  to  certain  rules  in  regard  to  methods  of  tillage  and  crops. 
3.  A  piece  of  land  which  was  divided  into  fenced  fields,  called  closes  (because 
enclosed),  and  which  tenants  might  hire  and  use  as  they  saw  fit.  4.  Common 
pasture,  open  to  all  tenants  to  pasture  their  cattle  on.  5.  Waste  or  untilled  land, 
where  all  tenants  had  the  right  to  cut  turf  for  fuel,  or  gather  plants  or  shrubs  for 
fodder.  6.  The  forest  or  woodland,  where  all  tenants  had  the  right  to  turn  their 
hogs  out  to  feed  on  acorns,  and  where  they  might  also  collect  a  certain  amount 
of  small  wood  for  fuel.  7.  Meadow-land  on  which  tenants  might  hire  the  right 
to  cut  grass  and  make  hay.  On  the  above  plan  the  fields  of  tenants  —  both  those 
of  villeins  and  of  soke-men  —  are  marked  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  etc. 

If  the  village  grew  to  be  a  thriving  manufacturing  or  trading  town,  the  tenants 
might,  in  time,  purchase  from  the  lord  the  right  to  manage  their  own  affairs  in 
great  measure,  and  so  become  a  free  town  in  a  considerable  degree.  (See  Para- 
graph 234.) 

Sod 


THE    COMINGS    OF    THE    NORMANS.  8 1 

his  lord's  eldest  son  a  knight.  3.  To  provide  a  suitable  marriage  por- 
tion on  the  marriage  of  his  lord's  eldest  daughter. 

In  addition  to  these  taxes,  or  "  aids,"  as  they  were  called,  there  were 
other  demands  which  the  lord  might  make,  such  as,  I.  A  year's  profits 
of  the  land  from  the  heir,  on  his  coming  into  possession  of  his  father's 
estate.1  2.  The  income  from  the  lands  of  orphan  heirs  not  of  age. 
3.  Payment  for  privilege  of  disposing  of  land.2 

In  case  of  an  orphan  heiress  not  of  age,  the  feudal  lord  became  her 
guardian  and  might  select  a  suitable  husband  for  her.  Should  the  heir- 
ess reject  the  person  selected,  she  forfeited  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  the 
amount  the  lord  expected  to  receive  by  the  proposed  marriage.  Thus 
we  find  one  woman  in  Ipswich  giving  a  large  fee  for  the  privilege  of 
"  not  being  married  except  to  her  own  good  liking."  In  the  collection 
of  these  "  aids  "  and  "  reliefs  "  great  extortion  was  often  practised  both 
by  the  king  and  the  barons. 

In  addition  to  the  feudal  troops  there  was  a  national  militia,  consist- 
ing of  peasants  and  others  not  provided  with  armor,  who  fought  on 
foot  with  bows  and  spears.  These  could  also  be  called  on  as  during 
the  Saxon  period.  In  some  cases  of  revolt  of  the  barons,  for  instance, 
under  William  Rufus,  this  national  militia  proved  of  immense  service  to 
the  crown.  The  great  landholders  let  out  part  of  their  estates  to  tenants 
on  similar  terms  to  those  on  which  they  held  their  own,  and  in  this  way 
the  entire  country  was  divided  up.  The  lowest  class  of  tenants  were  vil- 
leins or  serfs,  who  held  small  pieces  of  land  on  condition  of  performing 
labor  for  it.  These  were  bound  to  the  soil  and  could  be  sold  with  it, 
but  were  not  wholly  destitute  of  legal  rights.  Under  William  I.  and 
his  successors,  all  free  tenants,  of  whatever  grade,  were  bound  to  up- 
hold the  king,  and  in  case  of  insurrection  or  civil  war  to  serve  under 
him.  In  this  most  important  respect,  the  great  landholders  of  England 
differed  from  those  of  the  continent,  where  the  lesser  tenants  were  bound 
only  to  serve  their  masters,  and  might,  and  in  fact  often  did,  take  up 
arms  against  the  king.  William  removed  this  serious  defect.  By  do- 


1  Technically  called  a  relief. 

2  The  clergy  being  a  corporate,  and  hence  an  ever-living  body,  were  exempt  from 
these  last  demands.     Not  satisfied  with  this,  they  were  constantly  endeavoring,  with 
more  or  less  success,  to  escape  all  feudal  obligations,  on  the  ground  that  they  ren- 
dered the  state  divine  service.     In  1106,  reign  of  Henry  I.,  it  was  settled,  for  the 
time,  that  the  bishops  were  to  do  homage  to  the  king,  i.e.,  furnish  military  service, 
for  the  lands  they  received  from  him  as  their  feudal  lord.    See  Paragraph  No.  186. 


82  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ing  so  he  did  the  country  an  incalculable  service.  He  completed  the 
organization  of  feudal  land-tenure,  but  he  never  established  the  conti- 
nental system  of  feudal  government. 

RELIGION. 

201.  The  Church.  —  With  respect  to  the  organization  of  the  church, 
no   changes  were  made  under   the  Norman  kings.      They,  however, 
generally  deposed  the  English  bishops  and  substituted   Normans  or 
foreigners,  who,  as  a  class,  were  superior  in  education  to  the  English. 
It  came  to  be  pretty  clearly  understood  at  this  time  that  the  church 
was  subordinate  to  the  king,  and  that  in  all  cases  of  dispute  about  tem- 
poral matters,  he,  and  not  the  Pope,  was  to  decide.    During  the  Norman 
period  great  numbers  of  monasteries  were  built.     The  most  important 
action  taken  by  William  was  the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  courts  in 
which  all  cases  relating  to  the  church  and  the  clergy  were  tried  by  the 
bishops  according  to  laws  of  their  own.     Under  these  laws  persons 
wearing  the  dress  of  a  monk  or  priest,  or  who  could  manage  to  spell 
out  a  verse  of  the  Psalms,  and  so  pass  for  ecclesiastics,  would  claim  the 
right  to  be  tried,  and,  as  the  punishments  which  the  church  inflicted  were 
notoriously  mild,  the  consequence  was  that  the  majority  of  criminals 
escaped  the  penalty  of  their  evil  doings.     So  great  was  the  abuse  of 
this  privilege,  that,  at  a  later  period,  Henry  II.  made  an  attempt  to 
reform  it ;  but  it  was  not  finally  done  away  with  until  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century. 

MILITARY    AFFAIRS. 

202.  The  Army.  —  The  army  consisted  of  cavalry,  or  knights,  and 
foot-soldiers.     The  former  were  almost  wholly  Normans.     They  wore 
armor  similar   to  that  used  by  the  Saxons.     It  is  represented  in  the 
pictures  of  the  Bayeux  Tapestry  (see  205),  and  appears  to  have  con- 
sisted of  leather  or  stout  linen,  on  which  pieces  of  bone  or  scales  or 
rings  of  iron  were  securely  sewed.     Later,  these  rings  of  iron  were  set 
up  edgewise,  and   interlinked,  or   the  scales  made  to  overlap.      The 
helmet  was  pointed,  and  had  a  piece  in  front  to  protect  the  nose.     The 
shield  was  long  and  kite-shaped.     The  weapons  of  this  class  of  soldiers 
consisted  of  a  lance  and  a  double-edged  sword.     The  foot-soldiers  wore 
little  or  no  armor  and  fought  principally  with  long-bows.     In  case  of 
need,  the  king  could  probably  muster  about  10,000  knights,  or  armed 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  83 

Horsemen,  and  a  much  larger  force  of  foot-soldiers.  Under  the  Norman 
kings  the  principal  wars  were  insurrections  against  William  I.,  the 
various  revolts  of  the  barons,  and  the  civil  war  under  Stephen. 

203.  Knighthood.1  —  Candidates  for  knighthood  were  usually  obliged 
to  pass  through  a  long  course  of  training  under  the  care  of  some  dis- 
tinguished noble.  The  candidate  served  first  as  a  page,  then  as  a 
squire  or  attendant,  following  his  master  to  the  wars.  After  seven 
years  in  this  capacity,  he  prepared  himself  for  receiving  the  honors  of 
knighthood  by  spending  several  days  in  a  church,  engaged  in  solemn 
religious  rites,  fasting,  and  prayer.  The  young  man,  in  the  presence  of 
his  friends  and  kindred,  then  made  oath  to  be  loyal  to  the  king,  to 
defend  religion,  and  to  be  the  champion  of  every  lady  in  danger  or 
distress.  Next,  a  high-born  dame  or  great  warrior  buckled  on  his  spurs, 
and  girded  the  sword,  which  the  priest  had  blessed,  to  his  side.  This 
done,  he  knelt  to  the  prince  or  noble  who  was  to  perform  the  final 
ceremony.  The  prince  struck  him  lightly  on  the  shoulder  with  the 
flat  of  the  sword,  saying,  "  In  the  name  of  God,  St.  Michael,2  and  St. 
George  [the  patron  saint  of  England],  I  dub  thee  knight.  Be  brave, 
hardy,  and  loyal.1'  Then  the  young  cavalier  leaped  into  the  saddle  and 
galloped  up  and  down,  brandishing  his  weapons  in  token  of  strength 
and  skill.  In  case  a  knight  proved  false  to  his  oaths,  he  was  publicly 
degraded.  His  spurs  were  taken  from  him,  his  shield  reversed,  his 
armor  broken  to  pieces,  and  a  sermon  preached  upon  him  in  the  neigh- 
boring church,  proclaiming  him  dead  to  the  order. 

LITERATURE,   LEARNING,  AND  ART. 

204.  Education.  —  The  learning  of  this  period  was  confined  almost 
wholly  to  the  clergy.  Whatever  schools  existed  were  connected  with 
the  monasteries  and  nunneries.  Very  few  books  were  written.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  nobility  considered  fighting  the  great  business  of 

1  Knighthood :  Originally  the  knight  (cniht)  was  a  youth  or  attendant.     Later 
the  word  came  to  mean  an  armed  horse-soldier  or  cavalier  who  had  received  his 
weapons  and  title  in  a  solemn  manner.    Those  whom  the  English  called  knights 
the  Normans  called  chevaliers  (literally,  horsemen),  and  as  only  the  wealthy  and 
noble  could,  as  a  role,  afford  the  expense  of  a  horse  and  armor,  chivalry  or  knight- 
hood came  in  time  to  be  closely  connected  with  the  idea  of  aristocracy.    Besides 
the  method  described  above,  soldiers  were  sometimes  made  knights  on  the  battle- 
field as  a  reward  for  valor. 

2  St.  Michael,  as  representative  of  the  triumphant  power  of  good  over  eviL 


84  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

life  and  cared  nothing  for  education.  To  read  or  write  was  beneath 
their  dignity.  Such  accomplishments  they  left  to  monks,  priests,  and 
lawyers.  For  this  reason  seals  or  stamps  having  some  device  or  sig- 
nature engraved  on  them  came  to  be  used  on  all  papers  of  importance. 

205.  Historical  Works.  —  The  chief  books  written  in  England, 
under  the  Norman  kings,  were   histories.     Of  these,  the   most  note- 
worthy were  the  continuation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  in  English 
and  the  chronicles  of  William  of  Malmesbury  and  Henry  of  Huntingdon 
in  Latin.1     William's  book  and  the  Saxon  Chronicle  still  continue  to 
be  of  great  importance  to  students  of  this  period.     Mention  has  al- 
ready been  made  of  the  Bayeux  Tapestry,  a  history  of  the  Norman 
Conquest  worked  in  colored  worsteds,  on  a  long  strip  of  narrow  canvas. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  seventy-two  scenes,  or  pictures,  done  about 
the  time  of  William's  accession.     Some   have   supposed  it  to  be  the 
work  of  his  queen,  Matilda.     The  entire  length  is  two  hundred  and 
fourteen  feet  and  the  width  about  twenty  inches.     It  represents  events 
in  English  history  from  the  last  of  Edward  the  Confessor's  reign  to 
the  battle  of  Hastings.     As  a  guide  to  a  knowledge  of  the  armor, 
weapons,  and  costume  of  the  period,  it  is  of  very  great  value. 

206.  Architecture.  —  Under  the    Norman  sovereigns  there   was 
neither  painting,  statuary,  nor  poetry  worthy  of  mention.     The  spirit 
that  creates  these  arts  found  expression  in  architecture  introduced  from 
the  continent.     The  castle,  cathedral,  and  minster,  with  here  and  there 
an  exceptional  structure  like  London  Bridge  and  the  Great  Hall  at  West- 
minster, built  by  William  Rufus,  were  the  buildings  which  mark  the 
time.     Aside  from  Westminster  Abbey,  which,  although  the  work  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  was  really  Norman,  a  fortress  or  two,  like  Conings- 
borough  in  Yorkshire,  and  a  few  churches,  the  Saxons  erected  nothing 
worthy  of  note.     On  the  continent,  stone  had  already  come  into  general 
use  for  churches  and  fortresses.     William  was  no  sooner  firmly  estab- 
lished on  his  throne  than  he  began  to  employ  it  for  similar  purposes  in 
England.     The  characteristic  of  the  Norman  style  of  architecture  was 
its   massive  grandeur.      The   churches  were   built  in  the  form   of  a 
cross,  with  a  square,  central  tower,  the  main  entrance  being  at  the 

1  Among  the  historical  works  of  this  period  may  be  included  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth's  History  of  the  Britons,  in  Latin,  a  book  whose  chief  value  is  in  the  curious 
romances  with  which  it  abounds,  especially  those  relating  to  King  Arthur.  It  is 
the  basis  of  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORMANS.  85 

west.  The  interior  was  divided  into  a  nave,  or  central  portion,  with  an 
aisle  on  each  side  for  the  passage  of  religious  processions.  The 
windows  were  narrow,  and  rounded  at  the  top.  The  roof  rested  on 
round  arches  supported  by  heavy  columns.  The  cathedrals  of  Peter- 
borough, Ely,  Durham,  Norwich,  the  church  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Lon- 
don, and  St.  John's  Chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London  are  fine  examples  of 
Norman  work.  The  castles  consisted  of  a  square  keep,  or  citadel,  with 
walls  of  immense  thickness  having  a  few  slit-like  windows  in  the  lower 
story  and  somewhat  larger  ones  above.  In  these  everything  was  made 
subordinate  to  strength  and  security.  They  were  surrounded  by  a  high 
stone  wall  and  deep  ditch,  generally  filled  with  water.  The  entrance 
to  them  was  over  a  draw-bridge  through  an  archway  protected  by  an 
iron  grating,  or  portcullis,  which  could  be  raised  and  lowered  at  pleasure. 
The  Tower  of  London,  Rochester  Castle,  Carisbrook  Keep,  New 
Castle  on  the  Tyne,  and  Tintagel  Hold  were  built  by  William  or  his 
Norman  successors.  Although,  with  the  exception  of  the  first,  all  are  in 
ruins,  yet  these  ruins  bid  fair  to  stand  as  long  as  the  pyramids.  They 
were  mostly  the  work  of  churchmen,  who  were  the  best  architects  of 
the  day,  and  knew  how  to  plan  a  fortress  as  well  as  to  build  a  minster. 

GENERAL    INDUSTRY    AND    COMMERCE. 

207.  Trade. —  No  very  marked  change  took  place  in  respect  to  agri- 
culture or  trade  during  the  Norman  period.     The  Jews  who  came  in 
with  the  Conqueror  got  the  control  of  much  of  the  trade,  and  were 
the  only  capitalists  of  the  time.     They  were  protected  by  the  kings  iii 
money-lending   at   exorbitant   rates   of  interest.      In  turn,  the  kings 
extorted  immense  sums  from  them.     The  guilds,  or  associations  for 
mutual  protection  among  merchants,  now  became  prominent,  and  came 
eventually  to  have  great  political  influence. 

MODE    OF    LIFE,    MANNERS,    AND    CUSTOMS. 

208.  Dress.  —  The  Normans  were  more  temperate  and  refined  in 
their  mode  of  living  than  the  Saxons.     In  dress  they  made  great  dis- 
play.    In  Henry  I/s  reign  it  became  the  custom  for  the  nobility  to  wear 
their  hair  very  long,  so  that  their  curls  resembled  those  of  women. 
The  clergy  thundered  against  this  effeminate  fashion,  but  with  no  effect. 
At  last,  a  priest  preaching  before  the  king  on  Easter  Sunday,  ended  his 


86  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

sermon  by  taking  out  a  pair  of  shears  and  cropping  the  entire  congrega- 
tion, king  and  all. 

By  the  regulation  called  the  curfew,1  a  bell  rang  at  sunset  in  summer 
and  eight  in  winter,  which  was  the  government  signal  for  putting  out 
lights  and  covering  up  fires.  This  law,  which  was  especially  hated  by 
the  English,  as  a  Norman  innovation  and  act  of  tyranny,  was  a  neces- 
sary precaution  against  fire,  at  a  time  when  London  and  other  cities 
were  masses  of  wooden  hovels. 

Surnames  came  in  with  the  Normans.  Previous  to  the  conquest, 
Englishmen  had  but  one  name  ;  and  when,  for  convenience,  another 
was  needed,  they  were  called  by  their  occupation  or  from  some  per- 
sonal peculiarity,  as  Edward  the  Carpenter,  Harold  the  Dauntless. 
Among  the  Normans  the  lack  of  a  second,  or  family  name,  had  come 
to  be  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  low  birth,  and  the  daughter  of  a  great 
Lord  (Fitz-Haman)  refused  to  marry  a  nobleman  who  had  but  one, 
saying,  "My  father  and  my  grandfather  had  each  two  names,  and  it 
were  a  great  shame  to  me  to  take  a  husband  who  has  less." 

The  principal  amusements  were  hunting  and  hawking  (catching  small 
game  with  trained  hawks). 

intrndnraH   theatrical  plays,  written  and  aj:ted  by  the 


m  o  nks.     Thege  represented  scenes  jn  Scripture  history,  and,  later,  the" 
career  of  the  Vices  and  the  Virtues  personified. 

Tournaments,  or  mock  combats  between  knights,  were  not  encouraged 
by  William  I.  or  his  immediate  successors,  but  became  common  in  the 
period  following  the  Norman  kings. 

1  Curfew  :  couvre-feu,  cover-fire. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  87 


VI. 

"  Man  bears  within  him  certain  ideas  of  order,  of  justice,  of  reason,  with  a 
constant  desire  to  bring  them  into  play  .  .  . ;  for  this  he  labors  unceasingly."  — 
GUIZOT,  History  of  Civilization. 


THE  ANGEVINS,   OR   PLANTAGENETS,    1:54-1399. 

THE  BARONS  versus  THE  CROWN. 

CONSOLIDATION  OF  NORMAN  AND   SAXON  INTERESTS.  —  RISE  OF  THE  NEW 
ENGLISH  NATION. 

Henry  II.,  1154-1189.  Edward  I.,  I272-1307.1 

Richard  I.,  1189-1199.  Edward  II.,  1307-1327. 

John,  1199-1216.  Edward  III.,  1327-1377 

Henry  III.,  1216-1272.  Richard  II.,  1377-1399. 

209.  Accession  and  Dominions  of  Henry  II.  —  Henry  was  just 
of  age  when  the  death  of  Stephen  called  him  to  the  throne. 

From  his  father,  Count  Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  came  the  title  of 
Angevin.  The  name  Plantagenet,  by  which  the  family  was  also 
known,  was  derived  from  the  count's  habit  of  wearing  a  sprig  of 
the  golden-blossomed  broom-plant,  or  Plante-gen^t,  as  the  French 
called  it,  in  his  helmet. 

Henry  received  from  his  father  the  dukedoms  of  Anjou  and 
Maine,  from  his  mother,  Normandy  and  the  dependent  province 
of  Brittany,  while  through  his  marriage  with  Eleanor,  the  divorced 
queen  of  France,  he  acquired  the  great  southern  dukedom  of 
Aquitaine. 

Thus  on  his  accession  he  became  ruler  over  England  and  more 
than  half  of  France,  his  realms  extending  from  the  borders  of 
Scotland  to  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees.2  To  these  extensive  posses- 

l  Not  crowned  until  1274.        2  See  Maps  Nos.  8  and  9,  pages  88  and  130. 


88  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

sions  Henry  added  the  eastern  half  of  Ireland,1  which  was  but 
partially  conquered  and  never  justly  ruled,  so  that  the  English 
power  there  has  remained  ever  since  like  a  spear-point  embedded 
in  a  living  body,  inflaming  all  around  it.2 

210.  Henry's  Charter  and  Reforms. — On  his  mother's  side 
Henry  was  a  descendant  of  Alfred  the  Great ;  for  this  reason  he  was 
hailed  with  enthusiasm  by  the  native  English.  He  at  once  began  a 
system  of  reforms  worthy  of  his  illustrious  ancestor.  His  first  act 
was  to  issue  a  charter  confirming  the  promises  of  good  govern- 
ment made  by  his  grandfather,  Henry  I.  His  next  was  to  begin 
levelling  to  the  ground  the  castles  illegally  built  in  Stephen's  reign, 
which  had  caused  such  widespread  misery  to  the  country.3  He 
continued  the  work  of  demolition  until  it  is  said  he  had  destroyed 
no  less  than  eleven  hundred  of  these  strongholds  of  oppression. 
Having  accomplished  this  work,  the  king  turned  his  attention  to 
the  coinage.  During  the  civil  war  the  barons  had  issued  money 
debased  in  quality  and  deficient  in  weight.  Henry  abolished  this 
currency  and  issued  in  its  place  silver  pieces  of  full  weight  and 
value. 

1  Ireland :   the  population  of  Ireland  at  this  time  consisted  mainly  of  descend- 
ants of  the  Celtic  and  other  prehistoric  races  which  inhabited  Britain  at  the  period 
of  the  Roman  invasion.    When  the  Saxons  conquered  Britain,  many  of  the  natives, 
who  were  of  the  same  stock  and  spoke  essentially  the  same   language  as  the 
Irish,  fled  to  that  country.    Later,  the  Danes  formed  settlements  on  the  coast,  espe- 
cially in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin.    The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans  was 
practically  a  victory  gained  by  one  branch  of  a  German  race  over  another  (Saxons 
and  Normans  having  originally  sprung  from  the  same  stock),  and  the  two  soon 
mingled ;  but  the  partial  conquest  of  Ireland  by  the  Normans  was  a  radically  dif- 
ferent thing.     They  and  the  Irish  had  really  nothing  in  common.     The  latter 
refused  to  accept  the  feudal  system,  and  continued  split  up  into  savage  tribes  or 
clans  under  the  rule  of  petty  chiefs  always  at  war  with  each  other.     Thus  for 
centuries  after  England  had  established  a  settled  government  Ireland  remained, 
partly  through  the  battles  of  the  clans,  and  partly  through  the  aggressions  of  a  hos- 
tile race,  in  a  state  of  anarchic  confusion  which  prevented  all  true  national  growth. 

2  Lecky's  England. 

8  Under  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  immediate  successors  no  one  was 
allowed  to  erect  a  castle  without  a  royal  license.  During  Stephen's  time  the  great 
barons  constantly  violated  this  salutary  regulation. 


No.  8. 


THE  DOMINIONS  OF          __5fi 
THE 

ANGEVINS 

OR 

PLANT AGE NETS 


To  face  page  88. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.          $9 

211.  War  with  France;  Scutage.  —  Having  completed  these 
reforms,  the  king  turned  his  attention  to  his  continental  possessions. 
Through  his  wife,  Henry  claimed  the  county  of  Toulouse  in  South- 
ern France.     To  enforce  this  claim  he  declared  war.     Henry's 
barons,  however,  refused  to  furnish  troops  to  fight  outside  of  Eng- 
land.    The  king  wisely  compromised  the  matter  by  offering  to 
accept  from  each  knight  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  service,  called 
scutage,  or  shield-money.1     The  proposal  was  agreed  to,  and  means 
were  thus  furnished  to  hire  soldiers  for  foreign  wars. 

Later  in  his  reign  Henry  supplemented  this  tax  by  the  passage 
of  a  law2  which  revived  the  national  militia  and  placed  it  at  his 
command  for  home-service.  By  these  two  measures  the  king 
made  himself  practically  independent  of  the  barons,  and  thus 
gained  a  greater  degree  of  power  than  any  previous  ruler  had 
possessed. 

212.  Thomas    Becket.3  —  There  was,   however,   one    man    in 
Henry's  kingdom  —  his   chancellor,  Thomas    Becket  —  who  was 
always  ready  to  serve  him.     At  his  own  expense  he  now  equipped 
seven  hundred  knights,  and,  crossing  the  Channel,  fought  valiantly 
for  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  in  Toulouse. 

An  old  but  unfortunately  a  doubtful  story  represents  Becket  as 
the  son  of  an  English  crusader,  Gilbert  Becket,  who  was  captured 
in  the  Holy  Land,  and  who  in  turn  succeeded  in  captivating  the 
heart  of  an  Eastern  princess.  She  helped  him  to  escape  to  his 
native  land,  and  then  followed.  The  princess  knew  but  two 
words  of  English,  —  "Gilbert"  and  "London."  By  constantly  re- 
peating these,  as  she  wandered  from  city  to  city,  she  at  length 

1  Scutage:  from  the  Latin  scutum,  a  shield;  the  understanding  being  that  he 
who  would  not  take  his  shield  and  do  battle  for  the  king,  should  pay  enough  to 
hire  one  who  would. 

The  scutage  was  assessed  at  two  marks.  Later,  the  assessment  varied.  The 
mark  was  two-thirds  of  a  pound  of  silver  by  weight,  or  thirteen  shillings  and  four 
pence  ($3.20).  Reckoned  in  modern  money,  the  tax  was  probably  at  least  twenty 
times  two  marks,  or  about  $128.  The  only  coin  in  use  in  England  up  to  Edward 
I.'s  reign,  1272,  was  the  silver  penny,  of  which  twelve  made  a  shilling. 

2  The  Assize  or  Law  of  Arms.  8  Also  spelled  A  Becket  and  Beket. 


gO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

found  both,  and  the  long  search  for  her  lover  ended  in  a  happy 
marriage. 

213.  Becket  made  Archbishop.  —  Shortly  after  Becket's  return 
from  the  continent  Henry  resolved  to  appoint  him  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.     Becket  knew  that  the  king  purposed  beginning  cer- 
tain church  reforms  with  which  he  was  not  in  sympathy,  and  de- 
clined the  office.      But  Henry  would  take  no  denial.     At  last, 
wearied  with  his  importunity,  Becket  consented,  but  warned  the 
king  that  he  should  uphold  the  rights  of  the  clergy.      He  now 
became  the  head  of  the  church,  and  was  the   first  Englishman 
called  to  that  exalted  position  since  the  Norman  Conquest.     With 
his  assumption  of  the    sacred    office,  Becket  seemed  to  wholly 
change  his  character.     He  had  been  a  man  of  the  world,  fond  of 
pomp  and  pleasure.     He  now  gave  up  all  luxury  and  show.     He 
put  on  sackcloth,  lived  on  bread  and  water,  and  spent  his  nights 
in  prayer,  tearing  his  flesh  with  a  scourge. 

214.  The  First  Quarrel.  — The  new  archbishop's  presentiment 
of  evil  soon  proved  true.     Becket  had  hardly  taken  his  seat  when 
a  quarrel  broke  out  between  him  and  the  king.     In  his  need  for 
money  Henry  had  levied  a  tax  on  all  lands,  whether  belonging  to 
the  barons  or  churchmen. 

Becket  opposed  this  tax.1  He  was  willing,  he  said,  that  the 
clergy  should  contribute,  but  not  that  they  should  be  assessed. 

The  king  declared  with  an  oath  that  all  should  pay  alike ;  the 
archbishop  vowed  with  equal  determination  that  not  a  single 
penny  should  be  collected  from  the  church.  What  the  result  was 
we  do  not  know,  but  from  that  time  the  king  and  Becket  never 
met  again  as  friends. 

215.  The'  Second  Quarrel.  —  Shortly  after,  a  much  more  serious 
quarrel  broke  out  between  the  two.     Under  the  law  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  the  church  had  the  right  to  try  in  its  own  courts 
all  offences  committed  by  monks  and  priests.     This  privilege  had 
led  to  great  abuses.     Men  whose  only  claim  to  sanctity  was  that 

1  See  Paragraph  200,  note  on  Clergy. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.          QI 

they  wore  a  black  gown  or  had  a  shaven  head  claimed  the  right  of 
being  judged  by  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal.  The  heaviest  sen- 
tence the  church  could  give  ^  was  imprisonment  in  a  monastery, 
with  degradation  from  the  clerical  office.  Generally,  however, 
offenders  got  off  with  flogging  and  fasting.  On  this  account  many 
criminals  who  deserved  to  be  hanged  escaped  with  a  slight  penalty. 
Such  a  case  now  occurred.  A  priest  named  Brois  had  committed 
an  unprovoked  murder.  Henry  commanded  him  to  be  brought 
before  the  king's  court ;  Becket  interfered,  and  ordered  the  case 
to  be  tried  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  That  functionary  sen- 
tenced the  murderer  to  lose  his  place  for  two  years. 

216.  The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (1164) .  —The  king,  now 
thoroughly  roused,    determined   that   such    flagrant   disregard  of 
justice  should  no  longer  go  on.     He  called  a  council  of  his  chief 
men  at  Clarendon,1  and  laid  the  case  before  them.     He  demanded 
that  in  future  the  state  or  civil  courts  should  be  supreme,  and  that 
in  every  instance  their  judges  should  decide  whether  a  criminal 
should  be  tried  by  the  common  law  of  the  land  or  handed  over  to 
the  church  courts.      He    required   furthermore   that   the    clergy 
should  be  held  strictly  responsible  to  the  crown,  so  that  in  case 
of  dispute  the  final  appeal  should  be  to  neither  the  archbishop  nor 
the  Pope,  but  to  himself.     After  protracted  debate  the  council 
passed  these  measures,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon,  now  became  law. 

Becket,  though  bitterly  opposed  to  this  enactment,  finally  as- 
sented and  swore  to  obey  it.  Afterward,  feeling  that  he  had  con- 
ceded too  much,  he  retracted  his  oath  and  refused  to  be  bound 
by  the  Constitutions.  The  other  church  dignitaries  became 
alarmed  at  the  prospect,  and  left  Becket  to  settle  with  the  king  as 
best  he  might.  Henceforth  it  was  a  battle  between  one  man  and 
the  whole  power  of  the  government. 

217.  The  King  enforces  the  Law ;  Becket  leaves  the  Country. 
—  Henry  at  once  proceeded  to  put  the  Constitutions  into  execu- 
tion without  fear  or  favor. 


1  Clarendon  Park,  Wiltshire,  near  Salisbury. 


92  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

"  Then  was  seen  the  mournful  spectacle,"  says  a  champion  of 
the  church  of  that  day,  "  of  priests  and  deacons  who  had  com- 
mitted murder,  manslaughter,  robbery,  theft,  and  other  crimes, 
carried  in  carts  before  the  commissioners  and  punished  as  though 
they  were  ordinary  men." 1 

Not  satisfied  with  these  summary  procedures,  the  king,  who 
seems  now  to  have  resolved  to  either  ruin  Becket  or  drive  him 
from  the  kingdom,  summoned  the  archbishop  before  a  royal  coun- 
cil at  Northampton.  The  charges  brought  against  him  appear  to 
have  had  little,  if  any,  foundation.  Becket,  though  he  answered  the 
summons,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  council, 
and  appealed  to  the  Pope.  "  Traitor  ! "  cried  a  courtier,  as  he 
picked  up  a  bunch  of  muddy  rushes  from  the  floor  and  flung  them 
at  the  archbishop's  head. 

Becket  turned,  and  looking  him  sternly  in  the  face,  said,  "Were 
I  not  a  churchman,  I  would  make  you  repent  that  word." 

Realizing,  however,  that  he  was  now  in  serious  danger,  he  soon 
after  left  Northampton  and  fled  to  France. 

218.  Banishment  versus  Excommunication.  —  Henry,  finding 
Becket  beyond  his  reach,  next  proceeded  to  banish  his  kinsmen  and 
friends,  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  to  the  number  of  nearly  four 
hundred.     The  miserable  exiles,  many  of  whom  were  nearly  desti- 
tute, were  forced  to  leave  the  country  in  midwinter,  and  excited 
the  pity  of  all  who  saw  them,      Becket  indignantly  retaliated  by 
hurling  at  the  king's  counsellors  that  awful  anathema  of  excom- 
munication which  declares  those  against  whom  it  is  directed  ac- 
cursed of  God  and  man,  deprived  of  help  in  this  world,  and  shut 
out  from  hope  in  the  world  to  come.     In  this  manner  the  quarrel 
went  on  with  ever-increasing  bitterness  for  the  space  of  six  years. 

219.  Prince  Henry  crowned;    Reconciliation.  —  In   1170, 
Henry,  who  had  long  wished  to  associate  his  son  Prince  Henry 
with  him  in  the  government,  had  him  crowned  at  Westminster  by 

1  William  of  Newburgh. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.          93 

the  Archbishop  of  York,  the  bishops  of  London  and  Salisbury 
taking  part. 

By  custom,  if  not  indeed  by  law,  Becket  alone,  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  had  the  right  to  perform  this  ceremony. 

When  Becket  heard  of  the  coronation,  he  declared  it  an  outrage 
both  against  Christianity  and  the  church.  So  great  an  outcry  now 
arose  that  Henry  believed  it  expedient  to  recall  the  absent  arch- 
bishop, especially  as  the  king  of  France  was  urging  the  Pope  to 
take  up  the  matter.  Henry  accordingly  went  over  to  the  conti- 
nent, met  Becket  and  persuaded  him  to  return. 

220.  Renewal  of  the  Quarrel ;   Murder  of  Becket.  —  But  the 

reconciliation  was  on  the  surface  only ;  underneath,  the  old  hatred 
smouldered,  ready  to  burst  forth  into  flame. 

As  soon  as  he  reached  England,  Becket  invoked  the  thunders  of 
the  church  against  those  who  had  officiated  at  the  coronation  of 
the  boy  Henry.  He  excommunicated  the  archbishop  of  York 
with  his  assistant  bishops.  The  king  took  their  part,  and  in  an 
unguarded  moment  exclaimed,  in  an  outburst  of  passion,  "Will 
none  of  the  cowards  who  eat  my  bread  rid  me  of  that  turbulent 
priest  ? "  In  answer  to  his  angry  cry  for  relief,  four  knights  set 
out  without  Henry's  knowledge  for  Canterbury,  and  brutally  mur- 
dered the  archbishop  within  the  walls  of  his  own  cathedral. 

221.  Results  of  the  Murder.  — The  crime  sent  a  thrill  of  horror 
throughout  the  realm.    The  Pope  proclaimed  Becket  a  saint.    The 
English  people,  feeling  that  he  had  risen  from  their  ranks  and  was 
of  their  blood,  now  looked  upon  the  dead  ecclesiastic  as  a  martyr 
who  had  died  in  the  defence  of  the  church,  and  of  all  those  around 
whom  the  church  cast  its  protecting  power.     The  cathedral  was 
hung  in  mourning ;    Becket's  shrine  became  the  most  famous  in 
England,  and  the  stone  pavement,  with  the  steps  leading  to  it,  both 
show  by  their  deep- worn  hollows  where  thousands  of  pilgrims  coming 
from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  from  the  continent  even,  used  to 
creep  on  their  knees  to  the  saint's  tomb  to  pray  for  his  intercession. 
Henry  himself  was  so  far  vanquished  by  the  reaction  in  Becket's 


94  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

favor,  that  he  gave  up  any  further  attempt  to  enforce  the  Constitu- 
tions of  Clarendon,  by  which  he  had  hoped  to  establish  a  uniform 
system  of  administration  of  justice.  But  the  attempt,  though 
baffled,  was  not  wholly  lost ;  like  seed  buried  in  the  soil,  it  sprang 
up  and  bore  good  fruit  in  later  generations. 

222.  The  King  makes  Ms  Will ;   Civil  War.  —  Some  years 
after  the  murder  the  king  bequeathed  England  and  Normandy  to 
Prince  Henry.1     He  at  the  same  time  provided  for  his  sons  Geof- 
frey and  Richard.     To  John,  the  youngest  of  the  brothers,  he  gave 
no  territory,  but  requested  Henry  to  grant  him  several   castles, 
which  the  latter  refused  to  do. 

"  It  is  our  fate,"  said  one  of  the  sons,  "  that  none  should  love  the 
rest ;  that  is  the  only  inheritance  which  will  never  be  taken  from 
us." 

It  may  be  that  that  legacy  of  hatred  was  the  result  of  Henry's 
unwise  marriage  with  Eleanor,  an  able  but  perverse  woman,  or  it 
may  have  sprung  from  her  jealousy  of  "  Fair  Rosamond  "  and 
other  favorites  of  the  king.2 

Eventually  this  feeling  burst  out  into  civil  war.  Brother  fought 
against  brother,  and  Eleanor,  conspiring  with  the  king  of  France, 
turned  against  her  husband. 

223.  The  King's  Penance.  — The  revolt  against  Henry's  power 
began  in  Normandy.     While  he  was  engaged  in  quelling  it,  he  re- 

1  After  his  coronation  Prince  Henry  had  the  title  of  Henry  III.;  but  as  he  died 
before  his  father,  he  never  properly  became  king  in  his  own  right. 

2  "  Fair  Rosamond"  [Rosa  mundi,  the  Rose  of  the  world  (as  then  interpreted)] 
was  the  daughter  of  Lord  Clifford.     According  to  tradition  the  king  formed  an 
attachment  for  this  lady  before  his  unfortunate  marriage  with  Eleanor,  and  construc- 
ted a  place  of  concealment  for  her  in  a  forest  in  Woodstock,  near  Oxford.     Some 
accounts  report  the  queen  as  discovering  her  rival  and  putting  her  to  death.     She 
was  buried  in  the  nunnery  of  Godstow  near  by.    When  Henry's  son  John  became 
king,  he  raised  a  monument  to  her  memory  with  the  inscription  in  Latin:  — 

"  This  tomb  doth  here  enclose 
The  world's  most  beauteous  Rose  — 
Rose  passing  sweet  erewhile, 
Now  noueht  but  odor  vile." 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.          9$ 

ceived  intelligence  that  Earl  Bigod  of  Norfolk l  and  the  Bishop  of 
Durham,  both  of  whom  hated  the  king's  reforms,  since  they  cur- 
tailed their  authority,  had  risen  against  him. 

Believing  that  this  new  trouble  was  a  judgment  of  Heaven  for 
Becket's  murder,  Henry  resolved  to  do  penance  at  his  tomb.  Leav- 
ing the  continent  with  two  prisoners  in  his  charge  —  one  his  son 
Henry's  queen,  the  other  his  own,  —  he  travelled  with  all  speed 
to  Canterbury.  There  kneeling  abjectly  before  the  grave  of  his 
former  chancellor  and  friend,  the  king  submitted  to  be  beaten 
with  rods  by  the  priests,  in  expiation  of  his  sin. 

224.  End  of  the  Rebellion.  —  Henry  then  moved  against  the 
rebels  in  the  north.     Convinced  of  the  hopelessness  of  holding 
out  against  his  forces,  they  submitted.     With  their  submission  the 
struggle  of  the  barons  against  the  crown  came  to  an  end.     It  had 
lasted  just  one  hundred  years  (1074-1174).     It  settled  the  ques- 
tion, once  for  all,  that  England  was  not  like  the  rest  of  Europe,  to 
be  managed  in  the  interest  of  a  body  of  great  baronial  landholders 
always  at  war  with  each  other ;  but  was  henceforth  to  be  governed 
by  one  central  power,  restrained  but  not  overridden  by  that  of  the 
nobles  and  the  church. 

225.  The  King  again  begins  his  Reforms.  —  As  soon  as  order 
was  restored,  Henry  once  more  set  about  completing  his  legal  and 
judicial  reforms.     His  great  object  was  to  secure  a  uniform  system 
of  administering  justice  which  should  be  effective  and  impartial. 
Henry  I.  had  undertaken  to  divide  the  kingdom  into  districts  or 
circuits,  which  were  assigned  to  a  certain  number  of  judges,  who 
travelled  through  them  at  stated  times  collecting  the  royal  revenue 
and  administering  the  law.     Henry  II.  revised  and  perfected  this 
plan.2     Not  only  had  the  barons  set  up  private  courts  on  their 
estates,  but  they  had  in  many  cases  got  the  entire  control  of  the 

1  Hugh  Bigod :   the  Bigods  were  among  the  most  prominent  and  also  the  most 
turbulent  of  the  Norman  barons.     On  the  derivation  of  the  name,  see  Webster's 
Dictionary,  "  Bigot." 

2  Grand  Assize  and  Assize  of  Clarendon  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon). 


96  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

town  and  other  local  courts,  and  dealt  out  such  justice  or  injus- 
tice as  they  pleased.  The  king's  judges  now  presided  over  these 
tribunals,  thus  bringing  the  common  law  of  the  realm  to  every 
man's  door. 

226.  Grand  Juries.  —  The  Norman  method  of  settling  disputes 
was  by  trial  of  battle,  in  which  the  contestants  or  their  champions 
fought  the  matter  out  with  either  swords  or  cudgels.     There  were 
those  who  objected  to  this  club-law.     To  them  the  king  offered 
the  privilege  of  leaving  the  case  to  the  decision  of  twelve  knights, 
chosen  from  the  neighborhood,  who  were  supposed  to  know  the 
facts. 

In  like  manner,  when  the  judges  passed  through  a  circuit,  a 
grand  jury  of  not  less  than  sixteen  was  to  report  to  them  the 
criminals  of  each  district.  These  the  judges  forthwith  sent  to  the 
church  to  be  examined  by  the  ordeal.1  If  convicted,  they  were 
punished  ;  if  not,  the  judges  ordered  them  as  suspicious  characters 
to  leave  the  country  within  eight  days.  In  that  way  the  rascals  of 
that  generation  were  summarily  disposed  of. 

227.  Origin  of  the  Modern  Trial  by  Jury.  —  In  1215  (reign 
of  Henry's  son  John)  the  church  abolished  the  ordeal  throughout 
Christendom.     It  then  became  the  custom  in  England  to  choose  a 
petty  jury,  acquainted  with  the  facts,  who  confirmed  or  denied  the 
accusations  brought  by  the  grand  jury.    When  this  petty  jury  could 
not  agree,  the  decision  of  a  majority  was  sometimes  accepted. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  justice  in  this  way,  it  gradu- 
ally became  the  custom  to  summon  witnesses,  who  gave  their  testi- 
mony before  the  petty  jury  in  order  to  thereby  obtain  a  unanimous 
verdict.  The  first  mention  of  this  change  occurs  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  (1350)  ;  and  from  that  time,  perhaps,  may  be 
dated  the  true  beginning  of  our  modern  method,  by  which  the  jury 
bring  in  a  verdict,  not  from  what  they  personally  know,  but  from 
evidence  sworn  to  by  those  who  do.  Henry  II.  may  rightfully  be 
regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  the  system  which  England,  and 

l  Ordeal :  See  Paragraph  No.  127. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.          97 

England  alone,  fully  matured,  and  which  has  since  been  adopted 
by  every  civilized  country  of  the  globe. 

228.  The  King's  Last  Days.  —  Henry's  last  days  were  full  of 
bitterness.     Ever  since  his  memorable  return  from  the  continent, 
he  had  been  obliged  to  hold  the  queen  a  prisoner  lest  she  should 
undermine  his  power.     His  sons  were  discontented  and  rebellious. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  reign  they  again  plotted  against  him  with 
King  Philip  of  France.     War  was  then  declared  against  that  coun- 
try.    When  peace  was  made,  Henry,  who  was  lying  ill,  asked  to 
see  a  list  of  those  who  had  conspired  against  him.     At  the  head 
of  it  stood  the  name  of  his  youngest  son  John,  whom  he  trusted. 
At  the  sight  of  it  the  old  man  turned  his  face  to  the  wall,  saying, 
"  I  have  nothing  left  to  care  for  ;  let  all  things  go  their  way."     Two 
days  afterward  he  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

229.  Summary.  —  Henry  II.  left  his  work  only  half  done  ;  yet 
that  half  was  permanent  and  its  beneficent  mark  may  be  seen  on  the 
English  law  and  the  English  constitution  at  the  present  time.    When 
he  ascended  the  throne  he  found  a  people  who  had  long  been 
suffering  the  miseries  of  a  protracted  civil  war.     He  established 
a  stable  government.     He  redressed  their  wrongs.     He  punished 
the  mutinous  barons.     He  compelled  the  church,  at  least  for  a 
time,  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  state.     He  reformed 
the  administration  of  law ;  established  methods  of  judicial  inquiry 
which  were  to  gradually  develop  into  trial  by  jury ;  and  made  all 
men  feel  that  a  king  sat  on  the  throne  who  believed  in  justice  and 
was  able  to  make  justice  respected. 

RICHARD  I.  (Coeurde  Lion).'  —  1189-1199. 

230.  Accession  and  Character  of  Richard.  —  Henry  II.  was 
succeeded  by  his  second  son  Richard,  his  first  having  died  during 

1  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  (keur  de  le'  on),  Richard  the  Lion-hearted.  An  old 
chronicler  says  the  king  got  the  name  from  his  adventure  with  a  lion.  The  beasl 
attacked  him,  and  as  the  king  had  no  weapons,  he  thrust  his  hand  down  his  throat 
and  "  tore  out  his  heart ! ! " 


98  LEADING    FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  civil  war  of  1183,  in  which  he  and  his  brother  Geoffrey  had 
fougnt  against  Prince  Richard  and  their  father.  Richard  was  born 
at  Oxford,  but  he  spent  his  youth  in  France.  The  only  Eng- 
lish sentence  that  he  was  ever  known  to  speak  was  when  in  a 
raging  passion  he  vented  his  wrath  against  an  impertinent  French- 
man, in  some  broken  but  decidedly  strong  expressions  of  his  native 
tongue.  Richard's  bravery  in  battle  and  his  daring  exploits  gained 
for  him  the  flattering  surname  of  Cceur  de  Lion.  He  had  a  right 
to  it,  for  with  all  his  faults  he  certainly  possessed  the  heart  of  a 
lion.  He  might,  however,  have  been  called,  with  equal  truth, 
Richard  the  Absentee,  since  out  of  a  nominal  reign  of  ten  years 
he  spent  but  a  few  months  in  England,  the  remaining  time  being 
consumed  in  wars  abroad. 

231.  Condition   of    Society.  —  No   better  general   picture   of 
society  in  England  during  this  period  can  be  found  than  that  pre- 
sented by  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel,  "  Ivanhoe."     There  every  class 
appears  —  the  Saxon  serf  and  swineherd,  wearing  the  brazen  collar 
of  his  master  Cedric  ;  the  pilgrim  wandering  from  shrine  to  shrine, 
with  the  palm  branch  in  his  cap  to  show  that  he  has  visited  the  Holy 
Land ;  the  outlaw,  Robin  Hood,  lying  in  wait  to  strip  rich  church- 
men and  other  travellers  who  were  on  their  way  through  Sherwood 
Forest ;  the  Norman  baron  in  his  castle  torturing  the  aged  Jew  to 
extort  his  hidden  gold  ;  and  the  steel-clad  knights,  with  Ivanhoe 
at  their  head,  splintering  lances  in  the  tournament,  presided  over 
by  Richard's  brother,  the  traitorous  Prince  John. 

232.  Richard's  Coronation. — Richard  was  on  the  continent 
at  the  time  of  his  father's  death.     His  first  act  was  to  liberate 
his  mother  from  her  long  imprisonment  at  Winchester ;  his  next, 
to  place   her  at  the  head   of  the  English  government  until  his 
arrival    from    Normandy.      Unlike   Henry  II.,   Richard   did   not 
issue  a  charter,  or  pledge  of  good  government.     He,  however, 
took  the  usual   coronation  oath  to  defend  the  church,  maintain 
justice,  make  salutary  laws,  and  abolish   evil  customs;   such  an 
oath  might  well  be  considered  a  charter  in  itself. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  99 

233.  The  Crusade;  Richard's  Devices  for  raising  Money. — 

Immediately  after  his  coronation,  Richard  began  to  make  prepara- 
tions to  join  the  king  of  France  and  the  emperor  of  Germany  in 
the  third  crusade.  To  get  money  for  the  expedition,  the  king 
extorted  loans  from  the  Jews,  who  were  the  creditors  of  half 
England,  and  had  almost  complete  control  of  the  capital  and 
commerce  of  every  country  in  Europe.  The  English  nobles  who 
joined  Richard  also  borrowed  largely  from  the  same  source ;  and 
then,  suddenly  turning  on  the  hated  lenders,  they  tried  to  extin- 
guish the  debt  by  extinguishing  the  Jews.  A  pretext  against  the 
unfortunate  race  was  easily  found.  Riots  broke  out  in  London, 
York,  and  elsewhere,  and  hundreds  of  Israelites  were  brutally 
massacred.  Richard's  next  move  to  obtain  funds  was  to  impose 
a  heavy  tax ;  his  next,  to  dispose  of  titles  of  rank  and  offices  in 
both  church  and  state,  to  all  who  wished  to  buy  them.  Thus,  to 
the  aged  and  covetous  bishop  of  Durham  he  sold  the  earldom 
of  Northumberland  for  life,  saying,  as  he  concluded  the  bargain, 
"  Out  of  an  old  bishop  I  have  made  a  new  earl."  He  sold,  also, 
the  office  of  chief  justice  to  the  same  prelate  for  an  additional 
thousand  marks,1  while  the  king  of  Scotland  purchased  freedom 
from  subjection  to  the  English  king  for  ten  thousand  marks. 
Last  of  all,  Richard  sold  charters  to  towns.  One  of  his  courtiers 
remonstrated  with  him  for  his  greed  for  gain.  He  replied  that  he 
would  sell  London  itself  if  he  could  but  find  a  purchaser. 

234.  The  Rise  of  the  Free  Towns.  —  Of  all  these  devices  for 
raising  money,  the  last  had  the  most  important  results.     From  the 
time  of  the  Norman  Conquest  the  large  towns  of  England,  with 
few  exceptions,  were  considered  part  of  the  king's  property ;  the 
smaller  places  generally  belonged  to  the  great  barons.     The  citi- 
zens of  these  towns  were  obliged  to  pay  rent  and  taxes  of  various 
kinds  to  the  king  or  lord  who  owned  them.     These  dues  were  col- 
lected by  an  officer  appointed  by  the  king  or  lord  (usually  the 
sheriff) ,  who  was  bound  to  obtain  a  certain  sum,  whatever  more 

1  Mark:  see  note  to  Paragraph  No.  211. 


IOO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

He  could  get  being  his  own  profit.  For  this  reason  it  was  for  his 
interest  to  exact  from  every  citizen  the  uttermost  penny.  London, 
as  we  have  seen,  had  secured  a  considerable  degree  of  liberty 
through  the  charter  granted  to  it  by  William  the  Conqueror.  Every 
town  was  now  anxious  to  obtain  a  similar  pledge.  The  three  great 
objects  aimed  at  by  the  citizens  were  (i)  to  get  the  right  of  pay- 
ing their  taxes  (a  fixed  sum)  directly  to  the  king,  (2)  to  elect 
their  own  magistrates,  and  (3)  to  administer  justice  in  their  own 
courts  in  accordance  with  laws  made  by  themselves.  The  only 
way  to  gain  these  privileges  was  to  pay  for  them.  Many  of  the 
towns  were  rich ;  and,  when  the  king  or  lord  needed  money,  they 
bargained  with  him  for  the  favors  they  desired.  When  the  agree- 
ment was  made,  it  was  drawn  up  in  Latin,  stamped  with  the 
king's  seal,  and  taken  home  in  triumph  by  the  citizens,  who  locked 
it  up  as  the  safeguard  of  their  liberties.  If  they  could  not  get  all 
they  wanted,  they  bought  a  part.  Thus,  the  people  of  Leicester, 
in  the  next  reign,  purchased  from  the  earl,  their  master,  the  right 
to  decide  their  own  disputes.  For  this  they  paid  a  yearly  tax  of 
three  pence  on  every  house  having  a  gable  on  the  main  street. 
These  concessions  may  seem  small ;  but  they  prepared  the  way 
for  greater  ones.  What  was  still  more  important,  they  educated 
the  citizens  of  that  day  in  a  knowledge  of  self-government.  It 
was  the  tradesmen  and  shopkeepers  of  these  towns  who  preserved 
free  speech  and  equal  justice.  Richard  granted  a  large  number 
of  such  charters,  and  thus  unintentionally  made  himself  a  bene- 
factor to  the  nation. 

235.  Failure  of  the  Third  Crusade.— The  object  of  the  third 
crusade  was  to  drive  the  Turks  from  Jerusalem.  In  this  it  failed. 
Richard  got  as  near  Jerusalem  as  the  Mount  of  Olives.  When  he 
had  climbed  to  the  top,  he  was  told  that  he  could  have  a  full  view 
of  the  place ;  but  he  covered  his  face  with  his  mantle,  saying, 
"Blessed  Lord,  let  me  not  see  thy  holy  city  since  I  may  not 
deliver  it  from  the  hands  of  thine  enemies !  " 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  IOI 

236.  Richard  taken  Prisoner;   his  Ransom.  —  On  his  way 

home  the  king  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  German  emperor, 
who  held  him  captive.  His  brother  John,  who  had  remained  in 
England,  plotted  with  Philip  of  France  to  keep  Richard  in  prison 
while  he  got  possession  of  the  throne.  Notwithstanding  his  ef- 
forts, Richard  regained  his  liberty,1  on  condition  of  raising  a 
ransom  so  enormous  that  it  compelled  every  Englishman  to  con- 
tribute a  fourth  of  his  personal  property,  and  to  strip  the  churches 
of  their  jewels  and  silver  plate  even.  When  the  king  of  France 
heard  of  this,  he  wrote  to  John  notifying  him  that  his  brother  was 
free,  saying,  "  Look  out  for  yourself;  the  devil  has  broken  loose." 
Richard  pardoned  him  ;  arid  when  the  king  was  killed  in  France 
in  1199,  John  gained  and  disgraced  the  throne  he  coveted. 

237.  Purpose  of  the  Crusades. — Up  to  the  time  of  the  cru- 
sades, the  English  wars  on  the  continent  had  been  actuated  either 
by  ambition  for  military  glory  or  desire  for  conquest.     The  cru- 
sades, on  the  contrary,  were  undertaken  from  motives  of  religious 
enthusiasm.     Those  who  engaged  in  them  fought  for  an  idea. 
They  considered  themselves  soldiers  of  the  cross.     Moved  by  this 
feeling,  "  all  Christian  believers  seemed  ready  to  precipitate  them- 
selves in  one  united  body  upon  Asia."     Thus  the  crusades  were 
"the  first  European  event."  •     They  gave  men  something  to  battle 
for,  not  only  outside  their  country,  but  outside  their  own  selfish 
interests.     Richard,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  first  English  king 
who  took  part  in  them.     Before  that  period,,  England  had  stood 
aloof,  —  "a  world  by  itself."     The  country  was  engaged  in  its  own 
affairs  or  in  its  contests  with   France.      Richard's  expedition  to 
Palestine  brought  England  into  the  main  current  of  history,  so 

1  It  is  not  certainly  known  how  the  news  of  Richard's  captivity  reached  Eng- 
land.   One  story  says  that  it  was  carried  by  Blondel,  a  minstrel  who  had  accom- 
panied the  king  to  Palestine.     He,  it  is  said,  wandered  through  Germany  in  search 
of  his  master,  singing  one  of  Richard's  favorite  songs  at  every  castle  he  came  to. 
One  day,  as  he  was  thus  singing  at  the  foot  of  a  tower,  he  heard  the  well-known 
voice  of  the  king  take  up  the  next  verse  in  reply. 

2  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization. 


IO2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

that  it  was  now  moved  by  the  same  feeling  which  animated  the 
continent. 

238.  The  Results  of  the  Crusades :  Educational,  Social,  Polit- 
ical. —  In  many  respects  the  civilization  of  the  East  was  far  in 
advance  of  the  West.  One  result  of  the  crusades  was  to  open  the 
eyes  of  Europe  to  this  fact.  When  Richard  and  his  followers  set 
out,  they  looked  upon  the  Mohammedans  as  barbarians ;  before 
they  returned,  many  were  ready  to  acknowledge  that  the  barbarians 
were  chiefly  among  themselves.  At  that  time  England  had  few 
Latin  and  no  Greek  scholars.  The  Arabians,  however,  had  long 
been  familiar  with  the  classics,  and  had  translated  them  into  their 
own  tongue.  Not  only  did  England  gain  its  first  knowledge  of  the 
philosophy  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  from  Mohammedan  teachers, 
but  it  received  from  them  also  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  algebra, 
geometry,  and  astronomy.  This  new  knowledge  gave  an  impulse 
to  education,  and  had  a  most  important  influence  on  the  growth 
of  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  though  these  did  not 
become  prominent  until  more  than  a  century  later.  Had  these 
been  the  only  results,  they  would  perhaps  have  been  worth  the 
blood  and  treasure  spent  in  vain  attempts  to  recover  possession 
of  the  sepulchre  of  Christ ;  but  these  were  by  no  means  all.  The 
crusades  brought  about  a  social  and  political  revolution.  They 
conferred  benefits  and  removed  evils.  When  they  began,  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  including  England,  were 
chained  to  the  soil.  They  had  neither  freedom,  property,  nor 
knowledge. 

There  were  in  fact  but  two  classes,  the  churchmen  and  the  nobles, 
who  really  deserved  the  name  of  citizens  and  men.  We  have  seen 
that  the  crusades  compelled  kings  like  Richard  to  grant  charters  of 
freedom  to  towns.  The  nobles  conferred  similar  privileges  on 
those  in  their  power.  Thus  their  great  estates  were,  in  a  measure, 
broken  up  and  from  this  period  the  common  people  began  to 
acquire  rights,  and,  what  is  more,  to  defend  them.1 

1  Gibbon's  Rome. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  IO3 

239.  Summary. — We  may  say  in  closing  that  the  central  fact  in 
Richard's  reign  was  his  embarking  in  the  crusades.     From  them, 
directly  or  indirectly,  England  gained  two  important  results  :   first, 
a  greater  degree  of  political  liberty,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
towns  ;  second,  a  new  intellectual  and  educational  impulse. 

JOHN.—  1 199-1216. 

240.  John  Lackland.  —  When  Henry  II.  in  dividing  his  realm 
left  his  youngest  son  John  dependent  on  the  generosity  of  his 
brothers,  he  jestingly  gave  him  the  surname  of  "  Lackland."     As 
John  never  received  any  principality,  the  nickname  continued  to 
cling  to  him  even  after  he  had  become  king  through  the  death  of 
his  brother  Richard. 

241.  The  Quarrels  of  the  King.  —  The  reign  of  the  new  king 
was  taken  up  mainly  with  three  momentous  quarrels  :    first,  with 
France  ;    next,  with  the  Pope  ;    lastly,  with  the  barons.      By  his 
quarrel  with  France  he  lost  Normandy  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
adjoining  provinces,  thus  becoming  in  a  new  sense  John  Lackland. 
By  his  quarrel  with  the  Pope  he  was  humbled  to  the  earth.     By 
his  quarrel  with  the  barons  he  was  forced  to  grant  England  the 
Great  Charter. 

242.  Murder  of  Prince  Arthur. — Shortly  after  John's  acces- 
sion the  nobles  of  a  part  of  the  English  possessions  in  France  ex- 
pressed their  desire  that  John's  nephew,  Arthur,  a  boy  of  twelve, 
should  become  their  ruler.     John  refused  to  grant  their  request. 
War  ensued,  and  Arthur  fell  into  his  uncle's  hands,  who  imprisoned 
him  in  the  castle  of  Rouen..    A  number  of  those  who  had  been 
captured  with  the  young  prince  were  starved  to  death  in  the  dun- 
geons of  the  same  castle,  and  not  long  after  Arthur  himself  myste- 
riously disappeared.      Shakespeare  represents  John  as    ordering 
the  keeper  of  the  castle  to  put  out  the  lad's  eyes,  and  then  tells  us 
that  he  "was  killed  in  an  attempt  to  escape.     The  earlier  belief, 
however,  was  that  the  king  murdered  him. 


IO4  LEADING    FACTS   OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

243.  John's  Loss  of  Normandy.  —  Philip  of  France  accused 
John  of  the  crime,  and  ordered  him  as  Duke  of  Normandy,  and 
hence  as  a  feudal  dependant,  to  appear  at  Paris  for  trial.1     He 
refused.     The  court  was  convened,  John  was  declared  a  traitor 
and  sentenced  to  forfeit  all  his  lands  on  the  continent.    For  a  long 
time  he  made  no  attempt  to  defend  his  dominions,  but  left  his 
Norman  nobles  to  carry  on  a  war  against  Philip  as  best  they  could. 
At  last,  after  much  territory  had  been  lost,  the  English  king  made 
an  attempt  to  regain  it.     The  result  was  a  humiliating  and  crush- 
ing defeat,  in  which  Philip  seized  Normandy  and  followed  up  the 
victory  by  depriving  John  of  all  his  possessions  north  of  the  river 
Loire. 

244.  Good  Results  of  the  Loss  of  Normandy.  —  From  that 
period  the  Norman  nobles  were  compelled  to  choose  between  the 
island  of  England  and  the  continent  for  their  home.     Before  that 
time  the  Norman  contempt  for  the  Saxon  was  so  great,  that  his 
most  indignant  exclamation  was,  "  Do  you  take  me  for  an  English- 
man?"    Now,  however,  shut  in  by  the  sea,  with  the  people  he 
had  hitherto  oppressed  and  despised,  he  gradually  came  to  regard 
England  as  his  country,  and  Englishmen  as  his  countrymen.     Thus 
the  two  races  so  long  hostile  found  at  last  that  they  had  common 
interests  and  common  enemies.2 

245.  The  King's  Despotism.  —  Hitherto  our  sympathies  have 
been  mainly  with  the  kings.     We  have  watched  them  struggling 
against  the  lawless  nobles,  and  every  gain  which  they  have  made 
in  power  we  have  felt  to  be  so  much  for  the  cause  of  good  govern- 
ment ;  but  we  are  coming  to  a  period  when  our  sympathies  will  be 
the  other  way.     Henceforth  the  welfare  of  the  nation  will  depend 
largely  on  the  resistance  of  these  very  barons  to  the  despotic  en- 
croachments of  the  crown.8 

1  It  is  proper  to  state  in  this  connection  that  a  recent  French  writer  on  this 
period  —  M.  B6mont — is  satisfied  that  John's  condemnation  and  the  forfeiture  of 
Normandy  took  place  before  Arthur's  death,  for  tyranny  in  Poitou. 

2  Macaulay. 

'  Ransome's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  IO5 

246.  Quarrel  of  the  King  with  the  Church.  —  Shortly  after  his 
defeat  in  France,  John  entered  upon  his  second  quarrel.     Pope 
Innocent  III.  had  commanded  a  delegation  of  the  monks  of  Can- 
terbury to  choose  Stephen  Langton  archbishop  in  place  of  a  per- 
son whom  the  king  had  compelled  them  to  elect.     When  the  news 
reached  John,  he  forbade  Langton's  landing  in  England,  although 
it  was  his  native  country.     The  Pope  forthwith  declared  the  king- 
dom under  an  interdict,  or  suspension  of  religious  services.     For 
two  years  the  churches  were  hung  in  mourning,  the  bells  ceased  to 
ring,  the  doors  were  shut  fast.     For  two  years  the  priests  denied 
the  sacraments  to  the  living  and  funeral  prayers  for  the  dead.    At 
the  end  of  that  time  the  Pope,  by  a  bull  of  excommunication,1  cut 
off  the  king  as  a  withered  branch  from  the  church.     John  laughed 
at  the  interdict,  and  met  the  decree  of    excommunication  with 
such  cruel  treatment  of  the  priests,  that  they  fled  terrified  from 
the  land.     The  Pope  now  took  a  third  step ;  he  deposed  John, 
and  ordered  Philip  of  France  to  seize  the  English  crown.     Then 
John,  knowing  that  he  stood  alone,  made  a  virtue  of  necessity. 
He  kneeled  at  the  feet  of  the  Pope's  legate,  or  representative, 
accepted   Stephen    Langton   as  Archbishop   of  Canterbury,  and 
promised  to  pay  a  yearly  tax  to  Rome  of  1000  marks  (about 
$64,000  in  modern  money)  for  permission  to  keep  his  crown.    The 
Pope  was  satisfied  with  the  victory  he  had  gained  over  his  ignoble 
foe,  and  peace  was  made. 

247.  The  Great  Charter.  —  But  peace  in  one  direction  did  not 
mean  peace  in  all.     John's  tyranny,  brutality,  and  disregard  of  his 
subjects'  welfare  had  gone  too  far.     He  had  refused  the  church 
both  the  right  to  fill  its  offices  and  to  enjoy  its  revenues.     He 
had  extorted  exorbitant  sums  from  the  barons.     He  had  violated 
the  charters  of  London  and  other  cities.     He  had  compelled  mer- 
chants to  pay  large  sums  for  the  privilege  of  carrying  on  their  busi- 
ness unmolested.     He  had  imprisoned  men  on  false  or  frivolous 
charges,  and  refused  to  bring  them  to  trial.     He  had  unjustly 

1  Bull  (Latin  tulla,  a  leaden  seal) :  a  decree  issued  by  the  Pope,  bearing  his  seal. 


IO6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

claimed  heavy  sums  from  serfs  and  other  poor  men ;  and  when 
they  could  not  pay,  had  seized  their  carts  and  tools,  thus  depriving 
them  of  their  means  of  livelihood.  Those  who  had  suffered  these 
and  greater  wrongs  were  determined  to  have  reformation,  and  to 
have  it  in  the  form  of  a  written  charter  or  pledge  bearing  the 
king's  seal.  The  new  archbishop  was  not  less  determined.  He 
no  sooner  landed  than  he  demanded  of  the  king  that  he  should 
swear  to  observe  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor,1  a  phrase  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  national  liberties  was  summed  up. 

248.  Preliminary  Meeting  at  St.  Albans.  — In  the  summer  of 
1213,  a  council  was  held  at  St.  Albans,  near  London,  composed 
of  representatives  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.     It  was  the  first 
assembly  of  the  kind  on  record.     It  convened  to  consider  what 
claims  should  be  made  on  the  king  in  the  interest  of  the  nobles, 
the  clergy,  and  the  country.     Their  deliberations  took  shape  prob- 
ably under  Langton's  guiding  hand.     He  had  obtained  a  copy  of 
the  charter  granted  by  Henry  I.9     This  was  used  as  a  model  for 
drawing  up  a  new  one  of  similar  character,  but  in  every  respect 
fuller  and  stronger  in  its  provisions. 

249.  Second  Meeting. — Late  in  the  autumn  of  the  following 
year,  the  barons  met  in  the  abbey  church  of  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
in  Suffolk,  under  their  leader,  Robert  Fitz-Walter,  of  London. 
Advancing  one  by  one  up  the  church  to  the  high  altar,   they 
solemnly  swore   that   they  would  oblige  John  to  grant  the  new 
charter,  or  they  would  declare  war  against  him. 

250.  The  King  grants  the  Charter. — At   Easter,  1215,  the 
same  barons,  attended  by  twc  thousand  armed  knights,  met  the 
king  at  Oxford,  and  made  known  to  him  their  demands.     John 
tried  to  evade  giving  a  direct  answer.     Seeing  that  to  be  impos- 
sible, and  finding  that  London  was  on  the  side  of  the  barons,  he 
yielded,  and  requested  them  to  name  the  day  and  place  for  the 

1  Laws  of  Edward    lie  Confessor :  not  necessarily  the  laws  made  by  that  king, 
but  rather  the  custor  s  and  rights  enjoye  '  by  the  people  during  his  reign. 
a  See  Paragraph  No.  185,  and  note. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  IO/ 

ratification  of  the  charter.  "Let  the  day  be  the  i5th  of  June, 
the  place  Runnymede,"  l  was  the  reply.  In  accordance  there- 
with, we  read  at  the  foot  of  the  shrivelled  parchment  preserved  in 
the  British  museum,  "  Given  under  our  hand  *  *  in  the  meadow 
called  Runnymede,  between  Windsor  and  Staines,  on  the  I5th 
June,  in  the  lyth  year  of  our  reign." 

251.  Terms  and  Value  of  the  Charter.  —  By  the  terms  of  that 
document,  henceforth  to  be  known  as  Magna  Carta,2  or  the  Great 
Charter,  —  a  term  used  to  emphatically  distinguish  it  from  all 
previous  and  partial  charters,  —  it  was  stipulated  that  the  follow- 
ing grievances  should  be  redressed  :  first,  those  of  the  church ; 
second,  those  of  the  barons  and  their  vassals  or  tenants ;  third, 
those  of  citizens  and  tradesmen ;  fourth,  those  of  freemen  and 
serfs.  This,  then,  was  the  first  agreement  entered  into  between 
the  king  and  all  classes  of  his  people.  Of  the  sixty-three  articles 
which  constituted  it,  the  greater  part,  owing  to  the  changes  of  time, 
are  now  obsolete ;  but  three  possess  imperishable  value.  These 
provide  first,  that  no  free  man  shall  be  imprisoned  or  proceeded 
against  except  by  his  peers,  or  the  law  of  the  land ; 3  second,  that 
justice  shall  neither  be  sold,  denied,  nor  delayed ;  third,  that  all 
dues  from  the  people  to  the  king,  unless  otherwise  distinctly  speci- 
fied, shall  be  imposed  only  with  the  consent  of  the  National 
Council  —  an  expedient  which  converted  the  power  of  taxation  into 
the  shield  of  liberty.4  Thus,  for  the  first  time,  the  interests  of  all 
classes  were  protected,  and  for  the  first  time  the  English  people 
appear  in  the  constitutional  history  of  the  cpuntry  as  a  united 
body.  So  highly  was  this  charter  esteemed,  that  in  the  course  of 
the  next  two  centuries  it  was  confirmed  no  less  than  thirty-seven 


1  Runnymede:  about  twenty  miles  southwest  of  London,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Thames,  in  Surrey. 

2  Magna  Carta:  carta  is  the  spelling  in  the  mediaeval  Latin  of  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding charters. 

8  Peers  (from  Latin  pares),  equals.    This  secures  trial  by  jury. 
4  Mackintosh.    This  provision  was,  however,  dropped  in  the  next  reign;  but 
later  the  principle  it  laid  down  was  firmly  established, 


IO8  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

times :  and  the  very  day  that  Charles  II.  entered  London,  after  the 
civil  wars  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  House  of  Commons 
asked  him  to  confirm  it  again. 

252.  John's  Efforts  to  break  the  Charter.  — But  John  had  no 
sooner  set  his  hand  to  this  document  than  he  determined  to  re- 
pudiate it.     He  hired  bands  of  soldiers  on  the  continent  to  come 
to  his  aid.    The  Pope  also  used  his  influence,  and  threatened  the 
barons  with  excommunication  if  they  persisted  in  enforcing  the 
provisions  of  the  charter. 

253.  The  Barons  invite  Louis  of  France  to  aid  them.  —  In 

their  desperation,  —  for  the  king's  mercenaries  were  now  ravaging 
the  country,  —  the  barons  despatched  a  messenger  to  John's  sworn 
enemy,  Philip  of  France,  inviting  him  to  send  over  his  son,  Louis, 
to  free  them  from  tyranny,  and  become  ruler  of  the  kingdom.  * 
He  came  with  all  speed,  and  soon  made  himself  master  of  the 
southern  counties. 

254.  The  King's  Death.  — John  had  styled  himself  on  his  great 
seal  "  King  of  England  " ;  thus  formally  claiming  the  actual  owner- 
ship of  the  realm.     He  was  now  to  find  that  the  sovereign  who 
has  no  place  in  his  subjects'  hearts  has  small  hold  of  their  pos- 
sessions. 

The  rest  of  his  ignominious  reign  was  spent  in  war  against  the 
barons  and  Louis  of  France.  "They  have  placed  twenty-four 
kings  over  me  ! "  he  shouted,  in  his  fury,  referring  to  the  twenty- 
four  leading  men  who  had  been  appointed  to  see  that  the  charter 
did  not  become  a  dead  letter.  But  the  twenty-four  did  their 
duty,  and  the  battle  went  on.  In  the  midst  of  it  John  suddenly 
died,  as  the  old  record  said,  "a  knight  without  truth,  a  king  with- 
out justice,  a  Christian  without  faith."  He  was  buried  in  Worces- 
ter Cathedral,  wrapped  in  a  monk's  gown,  and  placed,  for  further 
protection,  between  the  bodies  of  two  Saxon  saints. 

255.  Summary.  —  John's  reign  may  be  regarded  as  a  turning- 
point  in  English  history. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  1 09 

1.  Through  the  loss  of  Normandy,  the  Norman  nobility  found 
it  for  their  interest  to  make  the  welfare  of  England  and  of  the 
English  race  one  with  their  own.     Thus  the  two  peoples  became 
more  and  more  united,  until  finally  all  differences  ceased. 

2.  In  demanding  and  obtaining  the  Great  Charter,  the  church 
and   the   nobility  made  common  cause  with  the  people.     That 
document  represents  the  victory,  not  of  a  class,  but  of  the  nation. 
The  next  eighty  years  will  be  mainly  taken  up  with  the  effort  of 
the  nation  to  hold  fast  what  it  has  gained. 

HENRY    III.  — 1216-1272. 

256.  Accession  and  Character.  — John's  eldest  son  Henry  was 
crowned  at  the  age  of  nine.     During  his  long  and  feeble  reign 
England's  motto  might  well  have  been  the  words  of  Ecclesiastes, 
"  Woe  to  thee,  O  land,  when  thy  king  is  a  child  ! "  since  a  child 
he  remained  to  the  last;    for  if  John's  heart  was  of  millstone, 
Henry's  was  of  wax.     In  one  of  his  poems,  written  perhaps  not 
long  after  Henry's  death,  Dante  represents  him  as  he  sees  him  in 
imagination  just  on  the  borderland   of  purgatory.    The   king  is 
not  in  suffering,  for  as  he  has  done  no  particular  good,  so  he  has 
done  no  great  harm  ;  he  appears,  therefore,  "  as  a  man  of  simple 
life,  spending  his  time  singing  psalms  in  a  narrow  valley."  l 

That  shows  one  side  of  his  negative  character ;  the  other  was 
love  of  extravagance  and  vain  display  joined  to  instability  of  pur- 
pose. 

257.  Reissue  of  the  Great  Charter.  —  Louis,  the  French  prince 
who  had  come  to  England  in  John's  reign  as  an  armed  claimant 
to  the  throne,  finding  that  both  the  barons  and  the  church  pre- 
ferred an  English  to  a  foreign  king,  now  retired.      During  his 
minority  Henry's  guardians  twice  reissued  the  great  charter :  first, 
with  the  omission  of  the  article  which  reserved  the  power  of  tax- 
ation to  the  National  Council,  and  finally  with  an  addition  declaring 
that  no  man  should  lose  life  or  limb  for  hunting  in  the  royal  forests. 

1  Dante's  Purgatory,  vii.  131, 


IIO  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

On  the  last  occasion  the  council  granted  the  king  in  return  a 
fifteenth  of  their  movable  or  personal  property.  This  tax,  as  it 
reached  a  large  class  of  people  like  merchants  in  towns,  who  were 
not  landholders,  had  a  decided  influence  in  making  them  desire 
to  have  a  voice  in  the  National  Council,  or  Parliament,  as  it  began 
to  be  called  in  this  reign  (1246).  It  thus  helped,  as  we  shall  see 
later  on,  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  important  change  in  that  body.1 

258.  Henry's  Extravagance. — When  Henry  became  of  age 
he  entered  upon  a  course  of  extravagant  expenditure.     This,  with 
unwise  and  unsuccessful  wars,  finally  piled  up  debts  to  the  amount 
of  nearly  a  million  of  marks,  or,  in  modern  money,  upwards  of 
^13,000,000  ($65,000,000).     To  satisfy  the  clamors  of  his  cred- 
itors he  mortgaged  the  Jews,  or  rather  the  right  of  extorting  money 
from  them,  to  his  brother  Richard.     He  also  violated  charters  and 
treaties  in  order  to  compel  the  nation  to  purchase  their  reissue. 
On  the  birth  of  his  first  son,  Prince  Edward,  he  showed  himself  so 
eager  for  congratulatory  gifts,  that  one  of  the  nobles  present  at 
court  said,  "  Heaven  gave  us  this  child,  but  the  king  sells  him 
to  us." 

259.  His  Church  Building.  —  Still,  not  all  of  the  king's  extrav- 
agance was  money  thrown  away.     Everywhere  on  the  continent 
magnificent  churches  were  rising.    The  heavy  and  sombre  Norman 
architecture,  with  its  round  arches  and  square,  massive  towers,  was 
giving  place  to  the  more  graceful  Gothic  style,  with  its  pointed 
arch  and  lofty,  tapering  spire.     The  king  shared  the  religious  en- 
thusiasm of  those  who  built  the  grand  cathedrals  of  Salisbury, 
Lincoln,  and  Ely.     He  himself  rebuilt  the  greater  part  of  West- 
minster Abbey  as  it  now  stands.     A  monument  so  glorious  ought 
to  make  us  willing  to  overlook  some  faults  in  the  builder.     Yet 
the  expense  and  taxation  incurred  in  erecting  the  great  minster 

1  The  first  tax  on  movable  or  personal  property  appears  to  have  been  levied  by 
Henry  II.,  in  1188,  for  the  support  of  the  crusades.  Under  Henry  III.  the  idea 
began  to  become  general  that  no  class  should  be  taxed  without  their  consent ;  out 
01  this  grew  the  representation  of  townspeople  in  Parliament, 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  Ill 

must  be  reckoned  among  the  causes  that  bred  discontent  and  led 
to  civil  war. 

260.  Religious  Reformation ;  the  Friars ;  Roger  Bacon.  — 

While  this  movement,  which  covered  the  land  with  religious  edi- 
fices, was  in  progress,  religion  itself  was  undergoing  a  change. 
The  old  monastic  orders  had  grown  rich,  indolent,  and  corrupt. 
The  priests  had  well-nigh  ceased  to  do  missionary  work  ;  preaching 
had  almost  died  out.  At  this  period  a  reform  sprang  up  within 
the  church  itself.  A  new  order  of  monks  had  arisen  calling  them- 
selves in  Norman  French  Freres,1  or  Brothers,  a  word  which  the 
English  turned  into  Friars.  These  Brothers  bound  themselves  to 
a  life  of  self-denial  and  good  works.  From  their  living  on  charity 
they  came  to  be  known  as  Mendicant  Friars.  They  went  from 
place  to  place  exhorting  men  to  repentance,  and  proclaiming  the 
almost  forgotten  Gospel  of  Christ.  Others,  like  Roger  Bacon  at 
Oxford,  took  an  important  part  in  education,  and  endeavored  to 
rouse  the  sluggish  monks  to  make  efforts  in  the  same  direction. 
Bacon's  experiments  in  physical  science,  which  was  then  neglected 
and  despised,  got  him  the  reputation  of  being  a  magician.  He 
was  driven  into  exile,  imprisoned  for  many  years,  and  deprived  of 
books  and  writing  materials.  But,  as  nothing  could  check  the 
religious  fervor  of  his  mendicant  brothers,  so  no  hardship  or  suf- 
fering could  daunt  the  intellectual  enthusiasm  of  Bacon.  When 
he  emerged  from  captivity  he  issued  his  Opus  Majus,2  an  "  in- 
quiry" as  he  called  it  "into  the  roots  of  knowledge."  It  was 
especially  devoted  to  mathematics  and  the  sciences,  and  deserves 
the  name  of  the  encyclopaedia  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

261.  The  Provisions  of  Oxford.  —  But  the  prodigal  expendi- 
ture and  mismanagement  of  Henry  kept  on  increasing.     At  last 
the  burden  of  taxation  became  too  great  to  bear.     Bad  harvests 
had  caused  a  famine,  and  multitudes  perished  even  in  London. 


1  Fibres  (frar). 

2  Opus  Majus :  Greater  Work,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  later  summary  entitled 
the  Opus  Minus,  or  Lesser  Work. 


112  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Confronted  by  these  evils,  Parliament  met  in  the  Great  Hall  at 
Westminster.  Many  of  the  barons  were  in  complete  armor.  As 
the  king  entered  there  was  an  ominous  clatter  of  swords.  Henry, 
looking  around,  asked  timidly,  "Am  I  a  prisoner?" 

"  No,  sire,"  answered  Earl  Bigod  ;  "  but  we  must  have  reform." 
The  king  agreed  to  summon  a  Parliament  to  meet  at  Oxford  and 
consider  what  should  be  done.  Their  enemies  nicknamed  the 
assembly  the  "  Mad  Parliament " ;  but  there  was  both  method  and 
determination  in  their  madness,  for  which  the  country  was  grate- 
ful. With  Simon  de  Montfort,  the  king's  brother-in-law,  at  their 
head,  they  drew  up  a  set  of  articles  or  provisions  to  which  Henry 
gave  an  unwilling  assent,  which  practically  took  the  government 
out  of  his  inefficient  hands  and  vested  it  in  the  control  of  three 
committees,  or  councils. 

262.  Renewal  of  the  Great  Charter.  —  Even  this  was  not 
enough.     The  king  was  now  compelled  to  reaffirm  that   Great 
Charter  which  his  father  had  unwillingly  granted  at  Runnymede. 
Standing  in  St.  Catherine's  Chapel  within  the  partially  finished 
church  of  Westminster  Abbey,  Henry,  holding  a  lighted  taper  in 
his  hand,  in  company  with  the  chief  men  of  the  realm,  swore  to 
observe  the  provisions  of  the  covenant.    At  the  close  he  exclaimed, 
as  he  dashed  the  taper  on  the  pavement,  while  all  present  repeated 
the  words  and  the  action,  "  So  go  out  with  smoke  and  stench  the 
accursed  souls  of  those  who  break  or  pervert  this  charter."    There 
is  no  evidence  that  the  king  was  insincere  in  his  oath ;  but  unfor- 
tunately his  piety  was  that  of  impulse,  not  of  principle.    The  com- 
pact was  soon  broken,  and  the  land  again  stripped  by  taxes  ex- 
torted by  violence,  partly  to  cover  Henry's  own  extravagance,  but 
largely  to  swell  the  coffers  of  the  Pope,  who  had  promised  to  make 
his  son  Prince  Edward  ruler  over  Sicily. 

263.  Growing  Feeling  of  Discontent. — During  this  time  the 
barons  were  daily  growing  more  mutinous  and  defiant,  saying  that 
they  would  rather  die  than  be  ruined  by  the  "  Romans,"  as  they 
called  the  papal  power.      To  a  fresh  demand  for  money  Earl 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  113 

Bigod  gave  a  flat  refusal.  "  Then  I  will  send  reapers  and  reap 
your  fields  for  you,"  cried  the  king  to  him.  "  And  I  will  send  you 
back  the  heads  of  your  reapers,"  retorted  the  angry  earl. 

It  was  evident  that  the  nobles  would  make  no  concessions.  The 
same  spirit  was  abroad  which,  at  an  earlier  date,  made  the  parlia- 
ment of  Merton  declare,  when  asked  to  alter  the  customs  of  the 
country  to  suit  the  ordinances  of  the  church  of  Rome,  "  We  will 
not  change  the  laws  of  England."  So  now  they  were  equally  re- 
solved not  to  pay  the  Pope  money  in  behalf  of  the  king's  son. 

264.  Civil  War;   Battle  of  Lewes.  —  In  1264  the  crisis  was 
reached,  and  war  broke  out  between  the  king  and  his  brother-in- 
law,  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  better  known  by  his 
popular  name  of  Sir  Simon  the  Righteous. 

With  fifteen  thousand  Londoners,  and  a  number  of  the  barons, 
he  met  Henry,  who  had  a  stronger  force,  on  the  heights  above  the 
town  of  Lewes,  in  Sussex.  The  result  of  the  great  battle  fought 
there,  was  as  decisive  as  that  fought  two  centuries  before  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  not  many  miles  distant  on  the  same  coast.1 

265.  De  Montf ort's  Parliament ;  the  House  of  Commons  (1265) . 
—  Bracton,  the  foremost  jurist  of  that   day,  said   in   his  com- 
ments on  the  dangerous  state  of  the  times,  "  If  the  king  were  with- 
out a  bridle,  —  that  is,  the  law,  —  his  subjects  ought  to  put  a  bridle 
on  him." 

Earl  Simon  had  that  bridle  ready,  or  rather  he  saw  clearly  where 
to  get  it.  The  battle  of  Lewes  had  gone  against  Henry,  who  had 
fallen  captive  to  De  Montfort.  As  head  of  the  state  the  earl  now 
called  a  parliament,  which  differed  from  all  its  predecessors  in  the 
fact  that  for  the  first  time  two  citizens  from  each  city,  and  two 
townsmen  from  each  borough,  or  town,  together  with  two  knights, 
or  country  gentlemen,  from  each  county,  were  summoned  to  Lon- 
don to  join  the  barons  and  clergy  in  their  deliberations.  Thus, 
in  the  winter  of  1266,  that  House  of  Commons,  or  legislative 

1  The  village  of  Battle,  which  marks  the  spot  where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was 
fought,  1066,  is  less  than  twenty  miles  east  of  Lewes. 


114  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

assembly  of  the  people,  originated,  which,  when  fully  established 
in  the  next  reign,  was  to  sit  for  more  than  three  hundred  years  in 
the  chapter-house l  of  Westminster  Abbey.  At  last  those  who  had 
neither  land  nor  rank,  but  who  paid  taxes  on  personal  property  only, 
had  obtained  representation.  Henceforth  the  king  had  a  bridle 
which  he  could  not  shake  off.  Henceforth  Magna  Carta  was  no 
longer  to  be  a  dead  parchment  promise  of  reform,  rolled  up  and  hid- 
den away,  but  was  to  become  a  living,  ever-present,  effective  truth. 
From  this  date  the  Parliament  of  England  began  to  lose  its  ex- 
clusive character  and  to  become  a  true  representative  body  stand- 
ing for  the  whole  nation,  and  hence  the  model  of  every  such 
assembly  which  now  meets,  whether  in  the  old  world  or  the  new ; 
the  beginning  of  what  President  Lincoln  called,  "government  of 
the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people." 

266.  Earl  Simon's  Death.  —  Yet  the  same  year  brought  for  the 
earl  a  fatal  reaction.    The  barons,  jealous  of  his  power,  fell  away 
from  him.     Edward,  the  king's  eldest  son,  gathered  them  round  the 
royal  standard  to  attack  and  crush  the  man  who  had  humiliated 
his  father.     De  Montfort  was  at  Evesham ; 2  from  the  top  of  the 
church  tower  he  saw  the  prince  approaching.     "  Commend  your 
souls  to  God,"  he  said  to  the  faithful  few  who  stood  by  him ;  "  for 
our  bodies  are  the  foes' !  "     There  he  fell.     In  the  north  aisle  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  not  far  from  Henry's  tomb,  may  be  seen  the 
emblazoned  arms  of  the  brave  earl.     England,  so  rich  in  effigies  of 
her  great  men,  so  faithful,  too,  in  her  remembrance  of  them,  has 
not  yet  set  up  in  the  vestibule  of  the  House  of  Commons  among 
the  statues  of  her  statesmen,  the  image  of  him  who  was  in  many 
respects  the  leader  of  them  all,  and  the  real  originator  and  founder 
of  the  House  itself. 

267.  Summary.  —  Henry's   reign  lasted  over  half  a  century. 
During  that  period  England,  as  we  have  seen,  was  not  standing 


1  Chapter-house :  the  building  where  the  chapter  or  governing  body  of  an  abbey 
or  cathedral  meet  to  transact  business. 

2  F.vesham,  Worcestershire. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  11$ 

still.  It  was  an  age  of  reform.  In  religion,  the  Mendicant  Friars 
were  exhorting  men  to  better  lives.  In  education,  Roger  Bacon 
and  other  devoted  scholars  were  laboring  to  broaden  knowledge 
and  deepen  thought.  In  political  affairs  the  people  through  the 
House  of  Commons  now  first  obtained  a  voice.  Henceforth  the 
laws  will  be  in  a  measure  their  work,  and  the  government  will 
reflect  in  an  ever-increasing  degree  their  will. 

EDWARD   I.  — 1272-1307.1 

268.  Edward  I.    and  the   Crusades.  —  Henry's  son,   Prince 
Edward,  was  in  the  East,  fighting  the  battles  of  the  crusades,  at 
the  time  of  his  father's  death.     According  to  an  account  given  in 
an  old  Spanish  chronicle,  his  life  was  saved  by  the  devotion  of  his 
wife  Eleanor,  who,  when   her   husband  was  assassinated  with  a 
poisoned  dagger,  heroically  sucked  the  poison  from  the  wound. 

269.  Edward's  First  Parliament.  — Shortly  after  his  return  to 
England,  he  convened  a  parliament,  to  which  the  representatives 
of  the  people  were  summoned.    This  body  declared  that  all  pre- 
vious laws  should  be  impartially  executed,  and  that  there  should 
be   no   interference   with   elections.2    Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
though  Earl  Simon  was  dead,  his  work  went  on.     Edward  had 
the  wisdom  to  adopt  and  perfect  the  example  his  father's  con- 
queror had  left.     By  him,  though  not  until  near  the  close  of  his 
reign  (1295),  Parliament  was  firmly  established,  in  its  twofold 
form,  of  Lords  and  Commons,3  and  became  "  a  complete  image 
of  the  nation." 

270.  Conquest  of  Wales ;  Birth  of  the  first  Prince  of  Wales. 
—  Henry  II.  had   labored  to  secure  unity  of  law  for  England. 
Edward's  aim  was  to  bring  the  whole  island  of  Britain  under  one 
ruler.     On  the  West,  Wales  only  half  acknowledged  the  power  of 
the   English  king,  while  on  the  north,  Scotland  was  practically  an 

1  Edward  I.  was  not  crowned  until  1274. 

2  The  First  Statute  of  Westminster. 

8  Lords:  this  term  should  be  understood  to  include  the  higher  clergy. 


Il6  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

independent  sovereignty.  The  new  king  determined  to  begin  by 
annexing  the  first-named  country  to  the  crown.  He  accordingly 
led  an  army  thither,  and,  after  several  victorious  battles,  consid- 
ered that  he  had  gained  his  end.  To  make  sure  of  his  new 
possessions,  he  ejected  the  magnificent  castles  of  Conway,  Beau- 
maris,  Harlech,  and  Caernarvon,  all  of  which  were  permanently 
garrisoned  with  bodies  of  troops  ready  to  check  revolt. 

In  the  last-named  stronghold,  tradition  still  points  out  a  little 
dark  chamber,  more  like  a  state-prison  cell  than  a  royal  apartment, 
where  Edward's  son,  the  first  Prince  of  Wales,  was  born.  The 
Welsh  had  vowed  that  they  would  never  accept  an  Englishman  as 
king ;  but  the  young  prince  was  a  native  of  their  soil,  and  cer- 
tainly in  his  cradle,  at  least,  spoke  as  good  Welsh  as  their  own 
children  of  the  same  age.  No  objection,  therefore,  could  be  made 
to  him ;  by  this  happy  compromise,  it  is  said,  Wales  became  a 
principality  joined  to  the  English  crown.1 

271.  Conquest  of  Scotland;  the  Stone  of  Scone. — An  oppor- 
tunity now  presented  itself  for  Edward  to  assert  his  power  in 
Scotland.  Two  claimants,  both  of  Norman  descent,  had  come 
forward  demanding  the  crown.2  One  was  John  Baliol ;  the  other, 
Robert  Bruce,  an  ancestor  of  the  famous  king  and  general  of  that 
name,  who  comes  prominently  forward  some  years  later.  Edward 

1  Wales  was  not  wholly  incorporated  with  England  until  two  centuries  later,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.    It  then  obtained  local  self-government  and  representa 
tion  in  Parliament. 

2  Scotland :  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest  of  Britain,  Scotland  was  in- 
habited by  a  Celtic  race  nearly  akin  to  the  primitive  Irish,  and  more  distantly  so 
to  the  Britons.     In  time,  the  Saxons  from  the  continent  invaded  the  country,  and 
settled  on  the  lowlands  of  the  East,  driving  back  the  Celts  to  the  western  highlands. 
Later,  many  English  emigrated  to  Scotland,  especially  at  the  time  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  where  they  found  a  hearty  welcome.    In  1072,  William  the  Conqueror 
compelled  the  Scottish  king  to  acknowledge  him  as  overlord;  and  eventually  so 
many  Norman  nobles  established  themselves  in  Scotland,  that  they  constituted  the 
chief  landed  aristocracy  of  the  country.    The  modern  Scottish  nation,  though  it 
keeps  its  Celtic  name  (Scotland),  is  made  up  in  great  measure  of  inhabitants  of 
English  descent,  the  pure  Scotch  being  confined  mostly  to  the  Highlands,  and 
ranking  in  population  only  as  about  one  to  three  of  the  former. 


THE   ANGEVINS,   OR   PLANTAGENETS.  1 1/ 

was  invited  by  the  contestants  to  settle  the  dispute.  He  decided 
in  BalioFs  favor,  but  insisted,  before  doing  so,  that  the  latter  should 
acknowledge  the  overlordship  of  England,  as  the  king  of  Scotland 
had  done  to  William  I.  Baliol  made  a  virtue  of  necessity,  and 
agreed  to  the  terms ;  but  shortly  after  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  France  against  Edward,  which  was  renewed  from  time  to 
time,  and  kept  up  between  the  two  countries  for  three  hundred 
years.  It  is  the  key  to  most  of  the  wars  in  which  England  was 
involved  during  that  period.  Having  made  this  treaty,  Baliol 
now  openly  renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  English  king.  Edward 
at  once  organized  a  force,  attacked  Baliol,  and  compelled  the 
country  to  acknowledge  him  as  ruler.  At  the  Abbey  of  Scone,  near 
Perth,  the  English  seized  the  famous  "  Stone  of  Destiny,"  the  pal- 
ladium of  Scotland,  on  which  her  kings  were  crowned.  Carrying 
the  trophy  to  Westminster  Abbey,  Edward  enclosed  it  in  that 
ancient  coronation  chair  which  has  been  used  by  every  sovereign 
since,  from  his  son's  accession  down  to  that  of  Victoria. 

272.  Confirmation  of  the  Charters.  —  Edward  next  prepared  to 
attack  France.     In  great  need  of  money,  he  demanded  a  large 
sum  from  the  clergy,  and  seized  a  quantity  of  wool  in  the  hands 
of  the  merchants.    The  barons,  alarmed  at  these  arbitrary  meas- 
ures, insisted  on  the  king's  reaffirming  all  previous  charters  of 
liberties,  including  the  Great  Charter,  with  certain  additions  ex- 
pressly providing  that  no  money  or  goods  should  be  taken  by  the 
crown  except  by  the  consent  of  the  people.    Thus  out  of  the  war, 
England  "gained  the  one  thing  it  needed  to  give  the  finishing 
touch  to  the  building-up  of  Parliament ;   namely,  a  solemn  ac- 
knowledgment by  the  king  that  the  nation  alone  had  power  to 
levy  taxes." l 

273.  Revolt  and  Death  of  Wallace.  — Scotland,  however,  was 
not  wholly  subdued.    The  patriot,  William  Wallace  rose  and  led 
his  countrymen  against  the  English  —  led  them  with  that  impetu- 
ous valor  which  breathes  in  Burns'  lines :  — 

l  Rowley,  Rise  of  the  English  People. 


Il8  LEADING   FACTS   OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

«  Scots  wha  ha'e  wi'  Wallace  bled." 

But  fate  was  against  him.  After  eight  years  of  desperate  fighting, 
the  valiant  soldier  was  captured,  executed  on  Tower  Hill  as  a 
traitor,  and  his  head,  crowned  in  mockery  with  a  wreath  of  laurel, 
set  on  a  pike  on  London  Bridge. 

But  though  the  hero  who  perished  on  the  scaffold  could  not 
prevent  his  country  from  becoming  one  day  a  part  of  England,  he 
did  hinder  its  becoming  so  on  unfair  and  tyrannical  terms.  "  Scot- 
land is  not  Ireland.  No ;  because  brave  men  arose  there,  and 
said,  *  Behold,  ye  must  not  tread  us  down  like  slaves, — and  ye 
shall  not,  —  and  ye  cannot ! '  "  l 

274.  Expulsion  of  the  Jews.  —  The  darkest  stain  on  Edward's 
reign  was  his  treatment  of  the  Jews.     Up  to  this  period  that  unfor- 
tunate race  had  been  protected  by  the  kings  of  England  as  men 
protect  the  cattle  which  they  fatten  for  slaughter.     So  long  as  they 
accumulated  money,  and  so  long  as  the  sovereign  could  rob  them 
of  their  accumulations  when  he  saw  fit,  they  were  worth  guarding. 
A  time  had  now  come  when  the  populace  demanded  their  expul- 
sion from  the  island,  on  the  ground  that  their  usury  and  extortion 
were  ruining  the  country.    Edward  yielded  to  the  clamor,  and  first 
stripping  the  Jews  of  their  possessions,  he  prepared  to  drive  them 
into  exile.     It  is  said  that  even  their  books  were  taken  from  them 
and  given  to  the  libraries  of  Oxford.     Thus  pillaged,  they  were 
forced  to  leave  the  realm  —  a  miserable   procession,  numbering 
some  sixteen  thousand.     Many  perished  on  the  way,  and  so  few 
ventured  to  return,  that  for  four  centuries  and  a  half,  until  Cromwell 
came  to  power,  they  practically  disappear  from  English  history. 

275.  Death  of    Queen   Eleanor.  —  Shortly  after    this   event, 
Queen  Eleanor  died.     The  king  showed  the  love  he  bore  her 
in  the  crosses  he  raised  to  her  memory,  three  of  which  still  stand.* 

l  Carlyle,  Past  and  Present. 

9  Originally  there  were  thirteen  of  these  crosses.  Of  these,  three  remain;  viz.,  at 
Northampton,  at  Geddington,  near  by,  and  at  Waltham,  about  twelve  miles  north 
east  of  London. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  I IQ 

These  were  erected  at  the  places  where  her  body  was  set  down,  in 
its  transit  from  Grantham,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  she  died,  to 
the  little  village  of  Charing  (now  Charing  Cross,  the  geographical 
centre  of  London),  its  last  station  before  reaching  its  final  resting- 
place,  in  that  abbey  at  Westminster,  which  holds  such  wealth  of 
historic  dust.  Around  her  tomb  wax-lights  were  kept  constantly 
burning,  until  the  Protestant  Reformation  extinguished  them,  three 
hundred  years  later. 

276.  Edward's    Reforms ;    Statute    of    Winchester.  —  The 
condition  of  England  when  Edward  came  to  the  throne  was  far 
from  settled.     The  country  was  overrun  with  marauders.     To 
suppress  these,  the  Statute  of  Winchester  made  the  inhabitants 
of  every  district  punishable  by  fines  for  crimes  committed  within 
their  limits.     Every  walled  town  had  to  close  its  gates  at  sunset, 
and  no  stranger  could  be  admitted  during  the  night  unless  some 
citizen  would  be  responsible  for  him. 

To  clear  the  roads  of  the  robbers  that  infested  them,  it  was 
ordered  that  all  highways  between  market  towns  should  be  kept 
free  of  underbrush  for  two  hundred  feet  on  each  side,  in  order  that 
desperadoes  might  not  lie  in  ambush  for  travellers. 

Every  citizen  was  required  to  keep  arms  and  armor,  according 
to  his  condition  in  life,  and  to  join  in  the  pursuit  and  arrest  of 
criminals. 

277.  Land  Legislation.  —  Two  important  statutes  were  passed 
during  this  reign,  respecting  the  free  sale  or  transfer  of  land.1 

Their  effect  was  to  confine  the  great  estates  to  the  hands  of 
their  owners  and  direct  descendants,  or,  when  land  changed  hands, 
to  keep  alive  the  claims  of  the  great  lords  or  the  crown  upon  it. 
These  laws  rendered  it  difficult  for  landholders  to  evade,  as  they 
hitherto  frequently  had,  their  feudal  duties  to  the  king  by  the  sale 

l  These  laws  may  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the  English  system  of  landed 
property :  they  completed  the  feudal  claim  to  the  soil  established  by  William  the 
Conqueror.  They  are  known  as  the  Second  Statute  of  Westminster  (De  Donis, 
or  Entail,  1285)  and  the  Third  Statute  of  Westminster  (Quia  Emptores,  1290). 


I2O  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

or  subletting  of  estates.  While  they  often  built  up  the  great  fami- 
lies, they  also  operated  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the  crown 
at  the  very  time  when  that  of  Parliament  and  the  people  was 
increasing  as  a  check  upon  its  authority. 

278.  Legislation  respecting  the  Church.  —  A  third  enactment 
checked  the  undue  increase  of  church  property.     Through  gifts 
and  bequests  the  clergy  had  become  owners  of  a  very  large  part 
of  the  most  fertile  soil  of  the  realm.     No  farms,  herds  of  cattle,  or 
flocks  of  sheep  compared  with  theirs.     These  lands  were  said  to 
be  in  mortmain,  or  "  dead  hands " ;    since  the  church,  being  a 
corporation,  never  let  go  its  hold,  but  kept  its  property  with  the 
tenacity  of  a  dead  man's  grasp.    The  clergy  constantly  strove  to 
get  these  church  lands  exempted  from  furnishing  soldiers,  or  pay- 
ing taxes  to  the  king.     Instead  of  men  or  money  they  offered 
prayers.    Practically,  the  government  succeeded  from  time  to  time 
in  compelling  them  to  do  considerably  more  than  this,  but  seldom 
without  a  violent  struggle,  as  in  the  case  of  Henry  II.  and  Becket. 
On  account  of  these  exemptions  it  had  become  the  practice  with 
many  persons  who  wished  to  escape  bearing  their  just  share  of  the 
support  of  the  government,  to  give  their  lands  to  the  church,  and 
then  receive  them  again  as  tenants  of  some  abbot  or  bishop.     In 
this  way  they  evaded  their  military  and  pecuniary  obligations  to 
the  crown.    To  put  a  stop  to  this  practice,  and  so  make  all  landed 
proprietors  do  their  part,  a  law  was  passed l  requiring  the  donor  of 
an  estate  to  the  church  to  obtain  a  royal  license ;  which  it  is 
perhaps  needless  to  say  was  not  readily  granted.2 

279.  Death  of  Edward.  —  Edward  died  while  endeavoring  to 
subdue  a  revolt  in  Scotland,  in  which  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of 
the  first  of  that  name,  had  seized  the  throne.     His  last  request 
was  that  his  son  Edward  should  continue  the  war.     "  Carry  my 
bones  before  you  on  your  march,"  said  the  dying  king,  "  for  the 
rebels  will  not  be  able  to  endure  the  sight  of  me,  alive  or  dead  ! " 

1  Statute  of  Mortmain,  1279. 

2  See  note  on  Clergy,  Paragraph  No.  300. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  121 

280.   Summary.  —  During  Edward  I.'s    reign,   the  following 
changes  took  place  :  — 

1.  Wales  and  Scotland  were  conquered,  and  the  first  remained 
permanently  a  part  of  the  English  kingdom. 

2.  The  landed    proprietors  of  the  whole  country  were  made 
more  directly  responsible  to  the  crown. 

3.  The  excessive  growth  of  church  property  was  checked. 

4.  Laws  for  the  better  suppression  of  acts  of  violence  were 
enacted  and  rigorously  enforced. 

5.  The  Great  Charter,  with  additional  articles  for  the  protection 
of  the  people,  was  confirmed  by  the  king,  and  the  power  of  taxation 
expressly  acknowledged  to  reside  in  Parliament  only. 

6.  Parliament,  a  legislative  body  now  representing  all  classes  of 
the  nation,  was  permanently  organized,  and  for  the  first  time  regu- 
larly and  frequently  summoned  by  the  king.1 


EDWARD   II.—  1307-1327. 

281.  Accession  and  Character.  —  The  son  to  whom  Edward 
left  his  power  was  in  every  respect  his  opposite.  The  old  defini- 
tion of  the  word  "king,"  was  "  the  man  who  can"  or  the  able  man. 
The  modern  explanation  usually  makes  him  "  the  chief  or  head  of 
a  people."  Edward  II.  would  satisfy  neither  of  these  definitions. 
He  lacked  all  disposition  to  do  anything  himself;  he  equally 
lacked  power  to  incite  others  to  do.  By  nature  he  was  a  jester, 
trifler,  and  waster  of  time.  Being  such,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  he  did  not  push  the  war  with  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce 
did  not  expect  that  he  would  ;  that  valiant  fighter,  indeed,  held  the 
new  English  sovereign  in  utter  contempt,  saying  that  he  feared  the 
dead  father  much  more  than  the  living  son. 

I  It  will  be  remembered  that  De  Montfort's  Parliament,  in  1265,  was  not  regu- 
larly and  legally  summoned,  since  the  king  (Henry  III.)  was  at  that  lime  a  captive. 
The  first  Parliament  (including  a  House  of  Commons,  Lords,  and  Clergy)  which, 
was  convened  by  the  crown,  was  that  called  by  Edward  I.  in  1295. 


122  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

282.  Piers  Gaveston;    the   Lords    Ordainers.  —  During    the 
first  five  years  of  his  reign,  Edward  did  little  more  than  lavish 
wealth  and  honors  on  his  chief  favorite  and  adviser,  Piers  Gaveston, 
a  Frenchman  who  had  been  his  companion  and  playfellow  from 
childhood.     While  Edward  I.  was  living,  Parliament  had  with  his 
sanction  banished  Gaveston  from  the  kingdom,  as  a  man  of  corrupt 
practices,  but  Edward  II.  was  no  sooner  crowned,  than  he  recalled 
him,  and  gave  him  the  government  of  the  realm  during  his  ab- 
sence in  France,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage.     On  his  return, 
the  barons  protested  against  the  monopoly  of  privileges  by  a  for- 
eigner, and  the  king  was  obliged  to  consent  to  his  banishment. 
He  soon  came  back,  however,  and  matters  went  on  from  bad  to 
worse.     Finally,  the  indignation  of  the  nobles  rose  to  such  a  pitch, 
that  at  the  council  held  at  Westminster  the  government  was  virtu- 
ally taken  from  the  king's  hands  and  vested  in  a  body  of  barons 
and  bishops.     The  head  of  this  committee  was  the  king's  cousin, 
the  Earl  of  Lancaster ;  and  from  the  ordinance  which  they  drew 
up  for  the  management  of  affairs  they  got  the  name  of  the  Lords 
Ordainers.     Gaveston  was  now  sent  out  of  the  country  for  a  third 
time ;  but  the  king  persuaded  him  to  return,  and  gave  him  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.     This  last  insult  —  for  so  the  Lords  Or- 
dainers regarded  it — was  too  much  for  the  nobility  to  bear.    They 
resolved  to  exile  the  hated  favorite  once  more,  but  this  time  to 
send  him  "  to  that  country  from  which  no  traveller  returns."     Ed- 
ward taking  the  alarm,  placed  Gaveston  in  Scarborough  Castle1 
for  safety.    The  barons  besieged  it,  starved  Gaveston  into  surren- 
der, and  beheaded  him  forthwith.    Thus  ended  the  first  favorite. 

283.  Scotland   regains  its  Independence.  —  Seeing  Edward's 
lack  of  manly  fibre,  Robert  Bruce,  who  had  been  crowned  king  of 
the  Scots,  determined  to  make  himself  ruler  in  fact  as  well  as  in 
name.    He  had  suffered  many  defeats ;  he  had  wandered  a  fugitive 
in  forests  and  glens ;  he  had  been  hunted  with  bloodhounds  like  a 
wild  beast ;  but  he  had  never  lost  courage  or  hope.    On  the  field 

l  Scarborough :  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  123 

of  Bannockburn  he  once  again  met  the  English,  and  in  a  bloody 
and  decisive  battle  drove  them  back  like  frightened  sheep  into 
their  own  country.  By  this  victory,  Bruce  re-established  the  in- 
dependence of  Scotland  —  an  independence  which  continued  until 
the  rival  kingdoms  were  peaceably  united  under  one  crown,  by  the 
accession  of  a  Scotch  king  to  the  English  throne.1 

284.  The  New  Favorites ;  the  King  made  Prisoner.  —  For  the 

next  seven  years  the  Earl  of  Lancaster  had  his  own  way  in  Eng- 
land. During  this  time  Edward,  whose  weak  nature  needed  some 
one  to  lean  on,  had  got  two  new  favorites,  —  Hugh  Despenser  and 
his  son.  They  were  men  of  more  character  than  Gaveston ;  but  as 
they  cared  chiefly  for  their  own  interests,  they  incurred  the  hatred 
of  the  baronage. 

The  king's  wife,  Isabelle  of  France,  now  turned  against  him. 
She  had  formerly  acted  as  a  peacemaker,  but  from  this  time  did 
all  in  her  power  to  the  contrary.  Roger  Mortimer,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  barons,  was  the  sworn  enemy  of  the  Despensers. 
The  queen  had  formed  a  guilty  attachment  for  him.  Together 
they  plotted  the  ruin  of  Edward  and  his  favorites.  They  raised  a 
force,  seized  and  executed  the  Despensers,  and  then  took  the  king 
prisoner. 

285.  Deposition   and   Murder  of   the  King.  —  Having  im- 
prisoned Edward  in  Kenilworth  Castle,2  the  barons  now  resolved  to 
remove  him  from  the  throne.      Parliament  drew  up  articles  of 
deposition  against  him,  and  appointed  commissioners  to  demand 
his  resignation  of  the  crown.     When   they  went  to  the  castle, 
Edward   appeared   before  them  clad  in  deep  mourning.     Pres- 
ently he  sank  fainting  to  the  floor.     On  his  recovery  he  burst  into 
a  fit  of  weeping.     Then,  checking  himself,  he  thanked  Parliament 
through   the   commissioners   for   having   chosen   his    eldest  son 
Edward,  a  boy  of  fourteen,  to  rule  over  the  nation. 

Judge  Trussel  then  stepped  forward  and  said  :    "  Unto  thee,  O 

1  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  England,  in  1603. 

2  Kenilworth  Castle,  Warwickshire. 


124  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

king,  I,  William  Trussel,  in  the  name  of  all  men  of  this  land  of 
England  and  speaker  of  this  Parliament,  renounce  to  you,  Edward, 
the  homage  [oath  of  allegiance]  that  was  made  to  you  some  time  ; 
and  from  this  time  forth  I  defy  thee  and  deprive  thee  of  all  royal 
power,  and  I  shall  never  be  attendant  on  thee  as  king  from  this 
time." 

Then  Sir  Thomas  Blount,  steward  of  the  king's  household, 
advanced,  broke  his  staff  of  office  before  the  king's  face,  and 
proclaimed  the  royal  household  dissolved. 

Edward  was  soon  after  committed  to  Berkeley  Castle,1  in  Glou- 
cestershire. There,  by  the  order  of  Mortimer,  with  the  con- 
nivance of  queen  Isabelle,  the  "she-wolf  of  France,"  who  acted 
as  his  companion  in  iniquity,  the  king  was  secretly  and  horribly 
murdered. 

286.  Summary. — The  lesson  of  Edward  II.'s  career  is  found 
in  its  culmination.      Other  sovereigns  had  been  guilty  of  misgov- 
ernment,  others  had  had  unworthy  and  grasping  favorites,  but  he 
was  the  first  whom  Parliament  had  deposed.    By  that  act  it  became 
evident  that  great  as  was  the  power  of  the  king,  there  had  now 
come  into  existence  a  greater  still,  which  could  not  only  make  but 
unmake  him  who  sat  on  the  throne. 

EDWARD  III.  — 1327-1377 

287.  Edward's  Accession ;  Execution  of  Mortimer.  —  Edward 
III.,  son  of  Edward  II.,  was  crowned  at  fourteen.    Until  he  became 
of  age,  the  government  was  nominally  in  the  hands  of  a  council, 
but  really  in  the  control  of  Queen  Isabelle  and  her  "  gentle  Morti- 
mer," the  two  murderers  of  his  father.     Early  in  his  reign  Edward 
attempted  to  reconquer  Scotland,  but  failing  in  his  efforts,  made  a 
peace  acknowledging  the  independence  of  that  country.    At  home, 

i  Berkeley  Castle  continues  in  the  possession  of  the  Berkeley  family.  It  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  finest  examples  of  feudal  architecture  now  remaining  in  England. 
Over  the  stately  structure  still  floats  the  standard  borne  in  the  crusades  by  an  an- 
cestor of  the  present  Lord  Berkeley. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  125 

however,  he  now  gained  a  victory  which  compensated  him  for  his 
disappointment  in  not  subduing  the  Scots. 

Mortimer  was  staying  with  Queen  Isabelle  at  Nottingham  Castle. 
Edward  obtained  entrance  by  a  secret  passage,  carried  him  off 
captive,  and  soon  after  brought  him  to  the  gallows.  He  next 
seized  his  mother,  the  queen,  and  kept  her  in  confinement  for 
the  rest  of  her  life  in  Castle  Rising,  Norfolk. 

288.  The  Rise  of  English  Commerce.  —  The  reign  of  Edward 
III.  is  directly  connected  with  the  rise  of  a  flourishing  commerce 
with  the  continent.  In  the  early  ages  of  its  history  England  was 
almost  wholly  an  agricultural  country.  At  length  the  farmers  in 
the  eastern  counties  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  wool-grow- 
ing. They  exported  the  fleeces,  which  were  considered  the  finest 
in  the  world,  to  the  Flemish  cities  of  Ghent  and  Bruges,  where 
they  were  woven  into  cloth,  and  returned  to  be  sold  in  the  English 
market ;  for,  as  an  old  writer  quaintly  remarks,  "  the  English  peo- 
ple at  that  time  knew  no  more  what  to  do  with  the  wool,  than 
the  sheep  on  whose  backs  it  grew."1  Through  the  influence  of 
Edward's  wife,  Queen  Philippa,  who  was  a  native  of  a  province 
adjoining  Flanders,2  which  was  also  extensively  engaged  in  the 
production  of  cloth,  woollen  factories  were  now  established  at 
Norwich  and  other  towns  in  the  East  of  England.  Skilled  Flemish 
workmen  were  induced  to  come  over,  and  by  their  help  England 
successfully  laid  the  foundation  of  one  of  her  greatest  and  most 
lucrative  industries.  From  that  time  wool  was  considered  a  chief 
source  of  the  national  wealth.  Later,  that  the  fact  might  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind,  a  square  crimson  bag  filled  with  it  —  the 
"  Woolsack "  —  became,  and  still  continues  to  be,  the  seat  of 
the  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  House  of  Lords. 


1  Fuller.    This  remark  applies  to  the  production  of  fine  woollens  only.    The 
English  had  long  manufactured  common  grades  o^woollen  cloth,  though  not  in 
any  large  quantity. 

2  Flanders :  a  part  of  the  Netherlands  or  Low  Countries.    The  latter  then  em- 
braced Holland,  Belgium,  and  a  portion  of  Northern  France. 


126  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

289.  The  Beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  (1338).— 

Indirectly,  this  trade  between  England  and  Flanders  helped  to 
bring  on  a  war  of  such  duration,  that  it  received  the  name  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War.  Flanders  was  at  that  time  a  dependency 
of  France ;  but  the  great  commercial  towns  were  rapidly  rising  in 
power,  and  were  restive  and  rebellious  under  the  exactions  and 
extortion  of  their  feudal  master,  Count  Louis.  Their  business 
interests  bound  them  strongly  to  England ;  and  they  were  anxious  to 
form  an  alliance  with  Edward  against  Philip  VI.  of  France,  who  was 
determined  to  bring  the  Flemish  cities  into  absolute  subjection. 

Philip  was  by  no  means  unwilling  to  begin  hostilities  with  Eng- 
land. He  had  long  looked  with  a  greedy  eye  on  the  tract  of 
country  south  of  the  Loire,1  which  remained  in  possession  of  the 
English  kings  ;  and  only  wanted  a  pretext  for  annexing  it.  Through 
his  alliance  with  Scotland,  he  was  threatening  to  attack  Edward's 
kingdom  on  the  north,  while  for  some  time  his  war-vessels  had 
been  seizing  English  ships  laden  with  wool,  so  that  intercourse 
with  Flanders  was  maintained  with  difficulty  and  peril. 

Edward  remonstrated  in  vain  against  these  outrages.  At  length, 
having  concluded  an  alliance  with  Ghent,  the  chief  Flemish  city, 
he  boldly  claimed  the  crown  of  France  as  his  lawful  right,2  and 

1  Aquitaine  (with  the  exception  of  Poitou) .  At  a  later  period  the  province  got 
the  name  of  Guienne,  which  was  a  part  of  it.  See  Map  No.  8,  page  88. 

2  CLAIM  OF  EDWARD  III.  TO  THE  FRENCH  CROWN. 

Philip  IIL  (of  France)* 
(1270-1285) 


Philip  IV.  Charles,  Count  of 

(1285-1314)  Valois,  d.  1325. 

I  II                 ~~l                 Philip  VI. 

Louis  X.  Philip  V.     Charles  IV.      Isabelle            (of  Valois) 

(1314-1316)  (1316-1322)   (1322-1328)      m.  Edward         (1328-1350) 

|  II.  of  England.              | 

John  I.  |                  John  II. 

(15  Nov.-ig  Edward  III.       (1350-1364) 

Nov.  1316)  of  England,  1327. 

*  The  heavy  lines  indicate  the  direct  succession.     See  note  on  next  page. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  \2"J 

followed  the  demand  with  a  declaration  of  war.  Edward  based 
his  claim  on  the  fact  that  through  his  mother  Isabelle  he  was 
nephew  to  the  late  French  king,  Charles  IV.,  whereas  the  reigning 
monarch  was  only  cousin.  Nothing  in  the  law  of  France  justified 
the  English  sovereign  in  his  extravagant  pretensions,  though,  as 
we  have  seen,  he  had  good  cause  for  attacking  Philip  on  other 
grounds. 

290.  Battle  of  Crecy1  (1346).  — For  the  next  eight  years,  fight- 
ing between  the  two  countries  was  going  on  pretty  constantly  on 
both  land  and  sea,  but  without  decisive  results.  Edward  was 
pressed  for  money,  and  had  to  resort  to  all  sorts  of  expedients  to 
get  it,  even  to  pawning  his  own  and  the  queen's  crown,  to  raise 
enough  to  pay  his  troops.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  equipping  a 
strong  force,  and  with  his  son  Edward,  a  lad  of  fifteen,  invaded 
Normandy.2 

His  plan  seems  to  have  been  to  attack  the  French  army  in  the 
South  of  France ;  but  after  landing  he  changed  his  mind,  and 
determined  to  ravage  Normandy,  and  then  march  north  to 
meet  his  Flemish  allies,  who  were  advancing  to  join  him.  At 
Cre'cy,  near  the  coast,  on  the  way  to  Calais,  a  desperate  battle 
took  place.  The  French  had  the  larger  force,  but  Edward  the 
better  position.  Philip's  army  included  a  number  of  hired  Genoese 
cross-bowmen,  on  whom  he  placed  great  dependence ;  but  a 
thunder-storm  had  wet  their  bowstrings,  which  rendered  them 
nearly  useless,  and,  as  they  advanced  toward  the  English,  the 

When,  in  1328,  Charles  IV.  of  France  died  without  leaving  a  son,  his  cousin, 
Philip  of  Valois,  succeeded  him  as  Philip  VI.  (the  French  law  excluding  females 
from  the  throne).  Edward  III.  of  Englajid  claimed  the  crown,  because  through 
his  mother  Isabelle  he  was  nephew  to  the  late  king,  Charles  IV.  The  French  re- 
plied, with  truth,  that  his  claim  was  worthless,  since  he  could  not  inherit  from  one 
who  could  not  herself  have  ascended  the  throne. 

1  Cr6cy  (kray-see). 

2  He  landed  near  Cherbourg,  opposite  the  Isle  of  Wight,  crossed  the  Seine  not 
very  far  below  Paris, — the  bridges  having  been  destroyed  up  to  that  point,  —  and 
then  marched  for  Calais  by  way  of  Crecy,  a  village  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Somme.     See  Map  No.  9,  page  130. 


128  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

afternoon  sun  shone  so  brightly  in  their  eyes,  that  they  could  not 
take  accurate  aim.  The  English  archers,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
kept  their  long-bows  in  their  cases,  so  that  the  strings  were  dry 
and  ready  for  action. 

In  the  midst  of  the  fight,  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  was  hard 
pressed  by  the  enemy,  became  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  young 
Prince  Edward.  He  sent  to  the  king,  asking  reinforcements. 
"  Is  my  son  killed?  "  asked  the  king.  "  No,  sire,  please  God  ! " 
"  Is  he  wounded?  "  "  No,  sire."  "  Is  he  thrown  to  the  ground? " 
"  No,  sire ;  but  he  is  in  great  danger."  "  Then,"  said  the  king, 
"  I  shall  send  no  aid.  Let  the  boy  win  his  spurs ; l  for  I  wish,  if 
God  so  order  it,  that  the  honor  of  the  victory  shall  be  his."  The 
father's  wish  was  gratified.  From  that  time  the  "  Black  Prince," 
as  the  French  called  him,  from  the  color  of  his  armor,  became  a 
name  renowned  throughout  Europe.  The  battle,  however,  was 
gained,  not  by  his  bravery  or  that  of  the  nobles  who  supported 
him,  but  by  the  sturdy  English  yeomen,  who  shot  their  keen 
white  arrows  so  thick  and  fast,  and  with  such  deadly  aim,  that  a 
writer  who  was  present  on  the  field  compared  them  to  a  shower 
of  snow.  It  was  that  fatal  snow-storm  which  won  the  day.2 

291.  Use  of  Cannon;  Chivalry. — At  Cr£cy  small  cannon 
appear  to  have  been  used  for  the  first  time,  though  gunpowder 
was  probably  known  to  the  English  monk,  Roger  Bacon,  many  years 
before.  The  object  of  the  cannon  was  to  frighten  and  annoy  the 

1  Spurs  were  the  especial  badge  of  knighthood.     It  was  expected  of  every  one 
who  attained  that  honor  that  he  should  do  some  deed  of  valor ;  this  was  called 
"  winning  his  spurs." 

2  The  English  yeomen,  or  country  people,  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  long-bow. 
They  probably  learned  its  value  from  their  Norman  conquerors,  who  employed  it 
with  great  effect  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.    Writing  at  a  much  later  period  Bishop 
Latimer  said  :  "  In  my  tyme  my  poore  father  was  as  diligent  to  teach  me  to  shote 
as  to  learne  anye  other  thynge.  *  *  *   He  taught  me  how  to  drawe,  how  to  laye  my 
bodye  in  my  bowe,  and  not  to  drawe  wyth  strength  of  armes  as  other  nacions  do, 
but  with  strength  of  the  bodye.    I  had  bowes  boughte  me  accordyng  to  my  age  and 
strength ;  as  I  encreased  in  them,  so  my  bowes  were  made  bigger,  and  bigger,  for 
men  shal  neuer  shot  well,  excepte  they  be  broughte  up  in  it."   The  advantage  of  this 
weapon  over  the  steel  cross-bow  (used  by  the  Genoese)  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  could 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS. 

horses  of  the  French  cavalry.  They  were  laughed  at  as  ingenious 
toys;  but  in  the  course  of  the  next  two  centuries  those  toys 
revolutionized  warfare  and  made  the  steel-clad  knight  little  more 
than  a  tradition  and  a  name. 

In  its  day,  however,  knighthood  did  the  world  good  service. 
Chivalry  aimed  to  make  the  profession  of  arms  a  noble  instead 
of  a  brutal  calling.  It  gave  it  somewhat  of  a  religious  charac- 
ter. It  taught  the  warrior  the  worth  of  honor,  truthfulness,  and 
courtesy,  as  well  as  valor  —  qualities  which  still  survive  in  the  best 
type  of  the  modern  gentleman.  We  owe,  therefore,  no  small  debt 
to  that  military  brotherhood  of  the  past,  and  may  join  the  English 
poet  in  his  epitaph  on  the  order :  — 

"  The  Knights  are  dust, 
Their  good  swords  rust; 
Their  souls  are  with  the  saints,  we  trust." * 

292.  Calais  taken.  —  Edward  now  marched  against  Calais. 
He  was  particularly  anxious  to  take  the  place,  since  its  situation 
as  a  fortified  port  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  within  sight  of  the  chalk 
cliffs  of  England,  would,  if  he  captured  it,  give  him  at  all  times 
"  an  open  doorway  into  France." 

After  besieging  it  for  nearly  a  year,  the  garrison  was  starved 
into  submission  and  prepared  to  open  the  gates.  Edward  was 
so  exasperated  with  the  stubborn  resistance  the  town  had  made, 
that  he  resolved  to  put  the  entire  population  to  the  sword,  but 
consented  at  last  to  spare  them,  on  condition  that  six  of  the  chief 
men  should  give  themselves  up  to  be  hanged. 

be  discharged  much  more  rapidly ;  the  latter  being  a  cumbrous  affair,  which  had 
to  be  wound  up  with  a  crank  for  each  shot.  Hence  the  English  long-bow  was  to 
that  age  what  the  revolver  is  to  ours.  It  sent  an  arrow  with  such  force  that  only 
the  best  armor  could  withstand  it.  The  French  peasantry  at  that  period  had  no 
skill  with  this  weapon ;  and  about  the  only  part  they  took  in  a  battle  was  to  stab 
horses  and  despatch  wounded  men. 

Scott,  in  the  Archery  Contest  in  Ivanhoe  (Chap.  XIII.)  has  given  an  excellent 
picture  of  the  English  bowman. 

1  Coleridge  (altered  by  Scott  ?),  The  Knight's  Tomb. 


I3O  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

A  meeting  was  called,  and  St.  Pierre,  the  wealthiest  citizen  of 
the  place,  volunteered,  with  five  others,  to  go  forth  and  die. 

Bareheaded,  barefooted,  with  halters  round  their  necks,  they 
silently  went  out,  carrying  the  keys  of  the  city.  When  they 
appeared  before  the  English  king,  he  ordered  the  executioner, 
who  was  standing  by,  to  seize  them  and  carry  out  the  sentence 
forthwith ;  but  Queen  Philippa,  who  had  accompanied  her  hus- 
band, now  fell  on  her  knees  before  him,  and  with  tears,  begged 
that  they  might  be  forgiven.  For  a  long  time  Edward  was  inex- 
orable, but  finally,  unable  to  resist  her  entreaties,  he  granted  her 
request,  and  the  men  who  had  dared  to  face  death  for  others, 
found  life  both  for  themselves  and  their  fellow-citizens.1 

293.  Victory  of  Poitiers2  (1356). — After  a  long  truce,  war' 
again  broke  out.     Philip  VI.  had  died,  and  his  son,  John  II.,  now 
sat  on  the  French  throne.    Edward,  during  this  campaign,  ravaged 
Northern  France.  The  next  year  his  son,  the  Black  Prince,  marched 
from  Bordeaux  into  the  heart  of  the  country. 

Reaching  Poitiers3  with  a  force  of  ten  thousand  men,  he 
found  himself  nearly  surrounded  by  a  French  army  of  sixty  thou- 
sand. He  so  placed  his  troops  amidst  the  narrow  lanes  and  vine- 
yards, that  the  enemy  could  not  attack  him  with  their  full  strength. 
Again  the  English  archers  gained  the  day,  and  King  John  himself 
was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  in  triumph  to  England. 

294.  Peace  of  Br&igny4  (1360).  —  The  victory  of  Poitiers  was 
followed  by  another  truce ;  then  war  began  again.     Edward  in- 
tended besieging  Paris,  but  was  forced  to  retire  to  obtain  provisions 
for  his  troops.     Negotiations  were  now  opened  by  the  French. 
While    they  were  going  on,  a  terrible  thunder-storm  destroyed 
great  numbers  of  men  and  horses  in  Edward's  camp.     Edward, 
believing  it  a  sign  of  the  displeasure  of  Heaven  against  his  expedi- 
tion, fell  on  his  knees,  and  within  sight  of  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres 

1  See  Froissart's  Chronicles. 

2  Poitiers  (PwS-te-a'),  nearly  like  Pwi-te-a'. 

'  Poitiers,  near  a  southern  branch  of  the  Loire.    See  Map  No.  9,  page  130. 
4  Bretigny  (bray-teen-yee'). 


No.  9. 


To  face  page  130. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANTAGENETS.         13! 

vowed  to  make  peace.  A  treaty  was  accordingly  signed  at  Bre"tigny 
near  by.  By  it,  Edward  renounced  all  claim  to  Normandy  and 
the  French  crown.1  France,  on  the  other  hand,  acknowledged 
the  right  of  England,  in  full  sovereignty,  to  the  country  south  of 
the  Loire,  together  with  Calais,  and  agreed  to  pay  an  enormous 
ransom  in  gold  for  the  restoration  of  King  John. 

295.  Effects  of  the  French  Wars  in  England.  —  The  great 
gain  to  England  from  these  wars  was  not  in  the  territory  con- 
quered, but  in  the  new  feeling  of  unity  they  aroused  among  all 
classes.  For  generations  afterward,  the  memory  of  the  brave 
deeds  achieved  in  those  fierce  contests  on  a  foreign  soil  made  the 
glory  of  the  Black  Prince,  whose  rusty  helmet  and  dented  shield 
still  hang  above  his  tomb  in  Canterbury  Cathedral,2  one  with  the 
glory  of  the  plain  bowmen,  whose  names  are  found  only  in  country 
churchyards. 

Henceforth,  whatever  lingering  feeling  of  jealousy  and  hatred 
had  remained  in  England,  between  the  Norman  and  the  English- 
man, now  gradually  melted  away  in  an  honest  patriotic  pride, 
which  made  both  feel  that  at  last  they  had  become  a  united  and 
homogeneous  people. 

The  second  effect  of  the  wars  was  political.  In  order  to  carry 
them  on,  the  king  had  to  apply  constantly  to  Parliament  for  money. 
Each  time  that  body  granted  a  supply,  they  insisted  on  some  re- 
form which  increased  their  strength,  and  brought  the  crown  more 
and  more  under  the  influence  of  the  nation. 

Thus  it  came  to  be  clearly  understood,  that  though  the  king 
held  the  sword,  the  people  held  the  purse ;  and  that  the  ruler  who 
made  the  greatest  concessions  got  the  largest  grants. 

It  was  also  in  this  reign  that  the  House  of  Commons,  which 


1  But  the  title  of  "  King  of  France  "  was  retained  by  English  sovereigns  down  to 
a  late  period  of  the  reign  of  George  III. 

2  These  are  probably  the  oldest  accoutrements  of  the  kind  existing  in  Great 
Britain.    The  shield  is  of  embossed  leather  stretched  over  a  wooden  frame,  and  is 
almost  as  hard  as  metal ;  the  helmet  is  of  iron.    See  Stothard's  Monumental  Effigies. 


132  LEADING    FACTS   OF  ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

now  sat  as  a  separate  body,  and  not,  as  at  first,  with  the  Lords,1 
obtained  the  important  power  of  impeaching,  or  bringing  to  trial 
before  the  Upper  House,  any  of  the  king's  ministers  or  council 
guilty  of  misgovernment. 

About  this  time,  also,  statutes  were  passed  which  forbade  appeals 
from  the  king's  courts  of  justice  to  that  of  the  Pope,2  who  was 
then  a  Frenchman,  and  was  believed  to  be  under  French  political 
influence. 

All  foreign  church  officials  were  prohibited  from  taking  money 
from  the  English  church,  or  interfering  in  any  way  with  its 
management.8 

296.  The  Black  Death. — Shortly  after  the  first  campaign  in 
France,  a  frightful  pestilence  broke  out  in  London,  which  swept 
over  the  country,  destroying  upwards  of  half  the  population.     The 
disease,  which  was  known  as  the  Black  Death,4  had  already  trav- 
ersed Europe,  where  it  had  proved  equally  fatal.     "How  many 
amiable  young  persons,"  said  an  Italian  writer  of  that  period,5 
"  breakfasted  with  their  friends  in  the  morning,  who,  when  evening 
came,  supped  with  their  ancestors."     In  Bristol  and  some  other 
English  cities,  the   mortality  was    so  great  that   the  living  were 
hardly  able  to  bury  the  dead;   so  that  all  business,  and,  for  a 
time  even  war,  came  to  a  standstill. 

297.  Effect  of  the  Plague  on  Labor. —  After  the  pestilence 
had  subsided,  it  was  impossible  to  find  laborers  enough  to  till  the 
soil  and  shear  the  sheep.     Those  who  were  free  now  demanded 
higher  wages,  while  the  villeins  and  slaves  left  their  masters,  and 
roamed  about  the  country  asking  pay  for  their  work,  like  freemen. 

It  was  a  general  agricultural  strike  which  lasted  over  thirty  years. 

1  The  knights  of  the  shire,  or  country  gentlemen,  now  took  their  seats  with  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  as  they  were  men  of  property  and  influence,  this  greatly 
increased  the  power  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  Parliament. 

2  First  Statute  of  Praemunire. 

*  Statute  of  Provisors. 

*  Black  Death :  so  called  from  the  black  spots  it  produced  on  the  skin. 
5  Boccaccio,  Decameron. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  133 

It  marks  the  beginning  of  that  contest  between  capital  and  labor 
which  had  such  an  important  influence  in  the  next  reign,  and 
which,  after  a  lapse  of  five  hundred  years,  is  not  yet  satisfactorily 
adjusted. 

Parliament  endeavored  to  restore  order.  They  passed  laws  for- 
bidding any  freeman  from  asking  more  for  a  day's  work  than  before 
the  plague.  They  gave  the  master  the  right  to  punish  a  serf  who 
persisted  in  running  away,  by  branding  him  on  the  forehead  with 
the  letter  "  F,"  for  fugitive.  But  legislation  was  all  in  vain ;  the 
movement  had  begun,  and  parliamentary  statutes  could  no  more 
stop  it  than  they  could  stop  the  ocean  tide.  It  continued  to  go 
on  until  it  reached  its  climax  in  the  peasant  insurrection  led  by 
Wat  Tyler  under  Edward's  successor,  Richard  II. 

298.  Beginning  of  English  Literature. — During  Edward's 
reign  the  first  work  in  English  prose  was  written.  It  was  a  volume 
of  travels  by  Sir  John  Mandeville,  who  had  journeyed  in  the  East 
for  over  thirty  years.  On  his  return  he  wrote  an  account  of  what 
he  had  heard  and  seen,  first  in  Latin,  that  the  learned  might  read 
it ;  next  in  French,  that  the  nobles  might  read  it ;  and  lastly  in  Eng- 
glish  for  the  common  people.  He  dedicated  the  work  to  the 
king.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  wonderful  thing  in  it  was 
the  statement  of  his  belief  that  the  world  is  a  globe,  and  that  a 
ship  may  sail  round  it  "  above  and  beneath,"  —  an  assertion  which 
probably  seemed  to  those  who  read  it  then  as  less  credible  than 
any  of  the  marvellous  stories  in  which  his  book  abounds. 

William  Langland  was  writing  rude  verses  about  his  "  vision  of 
Piers  the  Plowman,"  contrasting  "the  wealth  and  woe"  of  the 
world,  and  so  helping  forward  that  democratic  outbreak  which 
was  soon  to  take  place  among  those  who  knew  the  woe  and  wanted 
the  wealth.  John  Wycliffe,  a  lecturer  at  Oxford,  attacked  the  rich 
and  indolent  churchmen  in  a  series  of  tracts  and  sermons,  while 
Chaucer,  who  had  fought  on  the  fields  of  France,  was  preparing 
to  bring  forth  the  first  great  poem  in  our  language.1 

1  Wycliffe  and  Chaucer  will  appear  more  prominently  in  the  next  reign. 


134  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

299.  Edward's  Death. — The  king's  last  days  were  far  from 
happy.     His  son,  the  Black  Prince,  had  died,  and  Edward  fell  into 
the  hands  of  selfish  favorites  and  ambitious  schemers.     The  worst 
of  these  was  a  woman  named  Alice  Ferrers,  who,  after  Queen  Phil- 
ippa  was  no  more,  got  almost  absolute  control  of  the  king.     She 
stayed  with  him  until  his  last  sickness.     When  his  eyes  began  to 
glaze  in  death,  she  plucked  the  rings  from  his  unresisting  hands, 
and  fled  from  the  palace. 

300.  Summary.  —  During  this  reign  the  following  events  de- 
serve especial  notice :  — 

1.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  Scotland. 

2.  The  establishment  of  the  manufacture  of  fine  woollens  in 
England. 

3.  The  beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  with  the  victories 
of  Cr£cy,  and  Poitiers,  the  Peace  of  Bre'tigny,  and  their  social 
and  political  results  in  England. 

4.  The  Black  Death  and  its  results  on  labor. 

5.  The  partial  emancipation  of  the  English  church  from  the 
power  of  Rome. 

6.  The  rise  of  modern  literature,  represented  b/  the  works  of 
Mandeville,   Langland,   and  the   early  writings  of  Wycliffe  and 
Chaucer. 

RICHARD   II.  — 1377-1399. 

301.  England  at  Richard's  Accession. — The  death  of  the 
Black  Prince  left  his  son  Richard  heir  to  the  crown.     As  he  was 
but  eleven  years  old,  Parliament  provided  that  the  government 
during  his  minority  should  be  carried  on  by  a  council ;  but  John 
of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  speedily  got  the  control  of  affairs.1 
He  was  an  unprincipled  man,  who  wasted  the  nation's  money, 
opposed  reform,  and  was  especially  hated  by  the  laboring  classes. 
The  times  were  critical.     War  had  again  broken  out  with  both 
Scotland  and  France,  the  French  fleet  was  raiding  the  English 

1  John  of  Gaunt  (a  corruption  of  Ghent,  his  birthplace) :   he  was  a  younger 
brother  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince. 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  13$ 

coast,  the  national  treasury  had  no  money  to  pay  its  troops,  and 
the  government  debt  was  rapidly  accumulating. 

302.  The  New  Tax;  Tyler  and  Ball.  —  To  raise  money,  it 
was  resolved  to  levy  a  new  form  of  tax,  —  a  poll  or  head  tax,  — 
which  had  first  been  tried  on  a  small  scale  during  the  last  year  of 
the  previous  reign.  The  attempt  had  been  made  to  assess  it  on 
all  classes,  from  laborers  to  lords.  This  imposition  was  now  re- 
newed in  a  much  more  oppressive  form.  Not  only  every  laborer, 
but  every  member  of  a  laborer's  family  above  the  age  of  fifteen, 
was  required  to  pay  what  would  be  equal  to  the  wages  of  an  able- 
bodied  man  for  at  least  several  days'  work.1 

We  have  already  seen  that,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  Black 
Death,  and  the  strikes  which  followed,  the  country  was  on  the 
verge  of  revolt.  This  new  tax  was  the  spark  that  caused  the 
explosion.  The  money  was  roughly  demanded  in  every  poor 
man's  cottage,  and  its  collection  caused  the  greatest  distress.  In 
attempting  to  enforce  payment,  a  brutal  collector  shamefully  in- 
sulted the  young  daughter  of  a  workman.named  Wat  Tyler.  The 
indignant  father,  hearing  the  girl's  cry  for  help,  snatched  up  a 
hammer,  and  rushing  in,  struck  the  ruffian  dead  on  the  spot. 

Tyler  then  collected  a  multitude  of  discontented  serfs  and  free 
laborers  on  Blackheath  Common,  neat  London,  with  the  determi- 
nation of  attacking  the  city  and  overthrowing  the  government. 

John  Ball,  a  fanatical  priest,  harangued  the  gathering,  now  sixty 
thousand  strong,  using  by  way  of  a  text  lines  which  were  at  that 
time  familiar  to  every  workingman  :  — 

"  When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman?" 

"  Good  people."  he  cried,  "  things  will  never  go  well  in  Eng- 
land so  long  as  goods  be  not  in  common,  and  so  long  as  there  be 

1  The  tax  on  laborers  and  their  families  varied  from  four  to  twelve  pence  each, 
the  assessor  having  instructions  to  collect  the  latter  sum,  if  possible.  The  wages  of 
a  day-laborer  were  then  about  a  penny,  so  that  the  smallest  tax  for  a  family  of  three 
would  represent  the  entire  pay  for  nearly  a  fortnight's  labor.  See  Pearson's  Eng- 
land in  the  Fourteenth  Century. 


136  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

villeins  and  gentlemen.  They  call  us  slaves,  and  beat  us  if  we  are 
slow  to  do  their  bidding,  but  God  has  now  given  us  the  day  to 
shake  off  our  bondage." 

303.  The  Outbreak  General;  Violence  in  London.  —  Twenty 
years  before  there  had  been  similar  outbreaks  in  Flanders  and  in 
France.    This  therefore  was  not  an  isolated  instance  of  insurrec- 
tion, but  rather  part  of  a  general  uprising.     The  rebellion  begun 
by  Tyler  and  Ball  spread  through  the  southern  and  eastern  coun- 
ties of  England,  taking  different  forms  in  different  districts.     It 
was  violent  in  St.  Albans,  where  the  serfs  rose  against  the  exac- 
tions of  the  abbot,  but  it  reached  its  greatest  height  in  London. 

For  three  weeks  the  mob  held  possession  of  the  capital.  They 
pillaged  and  then  burned  John  of  Gaunt's  palace.  They  seized 
and  beheaded  the  Lord  Chancellor  and  the  chief  collector  of  the 
odious  poll-tax,  destroyed  all  the  law  papers  they  could  lay  hands 
on,  and  ended  by  murdering  a  number  of  lawyers ;  members  of 
that  profession  being  particularly  obnoxious  because  they,  as  the 
rioters  believed,  forged  the  chains  by  which  the  laboring  class 
were  held  in  subjection. 

304.  Demands  of  the  Rebels;  End  of  the  Rebellion. — The 

insurrectionists  demanded  of  the  king  that  villeinage  should  be 
abolished,  that  the  rent  of  agricultural  lands  should  be  fixed  by 
Parliament  at  a  uniform  rate  in  money,  that  trade  should  be  free, 
and  that  a  general  unconditional  pardon  should  be  granted  to  all 
who  had  taken  part  in  the  rebellion.  Richard  promised  redress  ; 
but  while  negotiations  were  going  on,  Walworth,  mayor  of  London, 
struck  down  Tyler  with  his  dagger,  and  with  his  death  the  whole 
movement  collapsed  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  arose.  Parliament 
now  began  a  series  of  merciless  executions,  and  refused  to  consider 
any  of  the  claims  which  Richard  had  shown  a  disposition  to  listen 
to.  In  their  punishment  of  the  rebels  the  House  of  Commons 
vied  with  the  Lords  in  severity,  few  showing  any  sympathy  with 
the  efforts  of  the  peasants  to  obtain  their  freedom  from  feudal 
bondage.  The  uprising,  however,  was  not  in  vain,  for  by  it  the 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  137 

old  restrictions  were  in  some  degree  loosened,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  the  next  century  and  a  half  villeinage  was  gradually 
abolished,  and  the  English  laborer  acquired  that  greatest  yet  most 
perilous  of  all  rights,  the  complete  ownership  of  himself.1  So 
long  as  he  was  a  serf,  the  peasant  could  claim  assistance  from  his 
master  in  sickness  and  old  age ;  in  attaining  independence  he  had 
to  risk  the  danger  of  pauperism,  which  began  with  it  —  this  possi- 
bility being  part  of  the  price  which  man  must  everywhere  pay  for 
the  inestimable  privilege  of  freedom. 

305.  The  New  Movement  in  Literature. — The  same  spirit 
which  demanded  emancipation  on  the  part  of  the  working  classes 
showed  itself  in  literature.  We  have  already  seen  how,  in  the 
previous  reign,  Langland,  in  his  poem  of  "  Piers  Plowman,"  gave 
bold  utterance  to  the  growing  discontent  of  the  times  in  his  decla- 
ration that  the  rich  and  great  destroyed  the  poor.  In  a  different 
spirit  Chaucer,  "  the  morning-star  of  English  song,"  now  began  to 
write  his  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  a  series  of  stories  in  verse,  sup- 
posed to  be  told  by  a  merry  band  of  pilgrims  on  their  way  from 
the  Tabard-Inn,  Southwark,2  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  Becket 
in  Canterbury. 

There  is  little  of  Langland's  complaint  in  Chaucer,  for  he  was 
generally  a  favorite  at  court,  seeing  mainly  the  bright  side  of 
life,  and  sure  of  his  yearly  allowance  of  money  and  daily  pitcher 
of  wine  from  the  royal  bounty.  Yet,  with  all  his  mirth,  there  is  a 
vein  of  playful  satire  in  his  description  of  men  and  things ;  and 
his  pictures  of  jolly  monks  and  easy-going  churchmen,  with  his 
lines  addressed  to  his  purse  "  as  his  saviour  down  in  this  world 
here,"  show  that  he  too  was  thinking,  at  least  at  times,  of  the 
manifold  evils  of  poverty  and  of  that  danger  springing  from  reli- 
gious indifference  which  poor  Langland  had  taken  so  much  to 
heart. 

1  In  Scotland  villeinage  lasted  much  longer,  and  so  late  as  1774,  in  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  men  working  in  coal  and  salt  mines  were  held  in  a  species  of  slavery, 
which  was  finally  abolished  the  following  year. 

9  gouthwark :  see  note  to  Paragraph  No.  153. 


138  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

306.  Wycliffe  ;  The  First  English  Bible.  —  But  the  real  re- 
former of  that  day  was  John  Wycliffe,  rector  of  Lutterworth  and 
lecturer  at  Oxford.  He  boldly  attacked  both  the  religious  and 
political  corruption  of  the  age.  The  mendicant  friars  who  at  an 
earlier  period  had  done  such  good  work  had  now  grown  too  rich 
and  lazy  to  be  of  further  use.  Wycliffe  organized  a  new  band  of 
brothers,  known  as  "  Poor  Priests,"  to  take  up  and  push  forward 
the  reforms  the  friars  had  dropped.  Clothed  in  red  sackcloth 
cloaks,  barefooted,  with  staff  in  hand,  they  went  about  from  town 
to  town1  preaching  "  God's  law,"  and  demanding  that  church  and 
state  bring  themselves  into  harmony  with  it. 

The  only  Bible  then  in  use  was  the  Latin  version.  The  people 
could  not  read  a  line  of  it,  and  many  priests  were  almost  as  igno- 
rant of  its  contents.  To  carry  on  the  revival  which  he  had  begun, 
Wycliffe  now  translated  the  Scriptures  into  English.  The  work 
was  copied  and  circulated  by  the  "  Poor  Priests."  But  the  cost 
of  such  a  book  in  manuscript  —  for  the  printing-press  had  not  yet 
come  into  existence  —  was  so  great  that  only  the  rich  could  buy 
the  complete  volume.  Many,  however,  who  had  no  money  would 
give  a  load  of  farm  produce  for  a  few  favorite  chapters.  In  this 
way  Wycliffe's  translation  was  spread  throughout  the  country  among 
all  classes.2  Later,  when  persecution  began,  men  hid  these  pre- 
cious copies  and  read  them  with  locked  doors  at  night,  or  met  in 
the  forests  to  hear  them  expounded  by  preachers  who  went  about 
at  the  peril  of  their  lives,  so  that  the  complaint  was  made  by 
Wycliffe's  enemies  "  that  common  men  and  women  who  could 
read  were  better  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures  than  the  most 
learned  and  intelligent  of  the  clergy." 

1  Compare  Chaucer's 

"  A  good  man  ther  was  of  religioun, 
That  was  a  poure  persone  [parson]  of  a  town." 

Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales  (479). 

2  The  great  number  of  copies  sent  out  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  after  the  lapse 
of  five  hundred  years,  one  hundred  and  sixty-five,  more  or  less  complete,  are  still 
preserved  in  England. 


THE  ANGEVINS,  OR  PLANT AGENETS.         139 

307.  The  LoUards;  Wycliffe's  Remains  burned. —The  fol- 
lowers of  Wycliffe  eventually  became  known  as  Lollards,  or  Psalm- 
singers.1     From  having  been  religious  reformers  denouncing  the 
wealth  and  greed  of  a  corrupt  church,  they  would  seem,  at  least 
in  many  cases,  to  have  degenerated  into  socialists  or  communists, 
demanding,  like  John  Ball,  — who  may  have  been  one  of  their 
number,  —  that  all  property  should  be  equally  divided,  and  that 
all  rank  should  be  abolished.     This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind 
with  reference  to  the  subsequent  efforts  made  by  the  government 
to  suppress  the  movement.    In  the  eye  of  the  church,  the  Lollards 
were  heretics ;  in  the  judgment  of  many  moderate  men,  they  were 
destructionists  and  anarchists,  as  unreasonable  and  as  dangerous 
as  the  "  dynamiters  "  of  to-day. 

By  a  decree  of  the  church  council  of  Constance,2  forty-four  years 
after  Wycliffe's  death  the  reformer's  body  was  dug  up  and  burned. 
But  his  influence  had  not  only  permeated  England,  but  had  passed 
to  the  continent,  and  was  preparing  the  way  for  that  greater  move- 
ment which  Luther  was  to  inaugurate  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Tradition  says  that  the  ashes  of  his  corpse  were  thrown  into  a 
brook  flowing  near  the  parsonage  of  Lutterworth,  the  object  being 
to  utterly  destroy  and  obliterate  the  remains  of  the  arch-heretic, 
but,  as  Fuller  says,  "this  brook  did  convey  his  ashes  into  the 
Avon,  Avon  into  Severn,  Severn  into  the  narrow  sea,  and  that  into 
the  wide  ocean.  And  so  the  ashes  of  Wycliffe  are  the  emblem  of 
his  doctrine,  which  is  now  dispersed  all  the  world  over."  3 

308.  Richard's  Misgovernment.  —  Richard's  reign  was  unpop- 
ular with  all  classes.     The  people  hated  him  for  his  extravagance  ; 

1  Or  "  Babblers." 

2  Constance,  Southern  Germany.    This  Council  (1415)  sentenced  John  Huss 
and  Jerome  of  Prague,  both  of  whom  may  be  considered  Wycliffites,  to  the  stake. 

8  Fuller's  Church  History  of  Britain.  Compare  also  Wordsworth's  Sonnet  to 
Wycliffe,  and  the  lines,  attributed  to  an  unknown  writer  of  Wycliffe's  time  :  — 

"  The  Avon  to  the  Severn  runs, 
The  Severn  to  the  sea; 
And  Wyclifle's  dust  shall  spread  abroad, 
Wide  as  the  waters  be." 


I4O  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  clergy,  for  his  failing  to  put  down  the  Wycliffites,  with  the  doc- 
trines of  whose  founder  he  was  believed  to  sympathize ;  while  the 
nobles  disliked  his  injustice  and  favoritism.  Some  political  re- 
forms were  attempted,  which  were  partially  successful ;  but  the 
king  soon  regained  his  power,  and  took  summary  vengeance  on 
the  kaders,  besides  imposing  heavy  fines  on  the  counties  which 
had  supported  them.  Two  influential  men  were  left,  Thomas 
Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  Henry  Bolingbroke,  Duke  of 
Hereford,  whom  he  had  found  no  opportunity  to  punish.  After  a 
time  they  openly  quarrelled,  and  accused  each  other  of  treason. 
A  challenge  passed  between  them,  and  they  were  to  fight  the  mat- 
ter out  in  the  king's  presence  ;  but  when  the  day  arrived,  and  they 
came  ready  for  the  combat,  the  king  banished  both  from  England. 
Shortly  after  they  had  left  the  country  Bolingbroke's  father,  John 
of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  died.  Contrary  to  all  law,  Richard 
now  seized  and  appropriated  the  estate,  which  belonged  by  right 
to  the  banished  nobleman. 

309.  Richard  deposed  and  murdered.  —  When  Bolingbroke, 
who  was  now  by  his  father's  death  Duke  of  Lancaster,  heard  of 
the  outrage,  he  raised  a  small  force  and  returned  to  England, 
demanding  the  restitution  of  his  lands. 

Finding  that  the  powerful  family  of  the  Percies  were  willing  to 
aid  him,  and  that  many  of  the  common  people  desired  a  change 
of  government,  the  duke  now  boldly  claimed  the  crown,  on  the 
ground  that  Richard  had  forfeited  it  by  his  tyranny,  and  that  he 
stood  next  in  succession  (through  his  descent  from  Henry  III.). 
The  king  now  fell  into  Henry's  hands,  and  events  moved  rapidly 
to  a  crisis.  Richard  had  rebuilt  Westminster  Hall.  The  first 
Parliament  which  assembled  there  met  to  depose  him,  and  to  give 
his  throne  to  the  victorious  Duke  of  Lancaster.  Shakespeare 
represents  the  fallen  monarch  saying  in  his  humiliation,  — 
"  With  mine  own  tears  I  wash  away  my  balm,1 
With  mine  own  hand  I  give  away  my  crown." 

l  Richard  II.,  Act  IV.  Sc.  i.  The  balm  was  the  sacred  oil  used  in  anointing 
the  king  at  his  coronation. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  141 

After  his  deposition  Richard  was  confined  in  Pontefract  Castle, 
Yorkshire,  where  he  found,  like  his  unfortunate  ancestor  Ed- 
ward IL,  "  that  in  the  case  of  princes  there  is  but  a  step  from  the 
prison  to  the  grave."  His  death  did  not  take  place,  however, 
until  after  Henry's  accession.1 

310.   Summary.  —  Richard  II. 's  reign  comprised, — 

1.  The  peasant  revolt  under  Wat  Tyler,  which  led  eventually  to 
the  emancipation  of  the  villeins,  or  serfs. 

2.  Wycliffe's  reformation    movement;    his   translation   of  the 
Latin  Bible,  with  the  rise  of  the  Lollards. 

3.  The  publication  of  Chaucer's  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  the  first 
great  English  poem. 

4.  The  deposition  of  the  king,  and  the  transfer  of  the  crown 
by  Parliament  to  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster. 

1  Henry  of  Lancaster  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  who  was  the  fourth  son  of 
Edward  III.;  but  there  were  descendants  of  that  king's  third  son  (Lionel,  Duke 
of  Clarence)  living,  who,  of  course,  had  a  prior  claim,  as  the  following  table  shows. 

Edward  III. 

[Direct  descendant  of  Henry  III.] 

« a 3 |J 4 5 

I  ~~1 I  I  "     I 

Edward,  the     William,  d.  in     Lionel,  Duke         John  of  Gaunt,        Edmund, 
Black  Prince        childhood  of  Clarence      Duke  of  Lancaster     Duke  of 

I  I  I  York 

Richard  IL  Philippa,  m.     Henry  Bolingbroke, 

Edmund  Morti-   Duke  of  Lancaster, 
mer  afterward  Henry 

I  IV. 

Roger  Mortimer, 
d.  1398-9 

Edmund  Mortimer 

(he ir  presumptive  to 

the  crown  after 

Richard  //.) 

This  disregard  of  the  strict  order  of  succession  furnished  a  pretext  foi  the  Civil 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  which  broke  out  sixty  years  later. 


142  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  ANGEVIN,   OR  PLANTAGENET, 
PERIOD.  — 1154-1399. 

I.  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV. 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART.  —  V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE.  —  VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

311.  Judicial  Reforms.  —  In  1 164,  Henry  II.  undertook,  by  a  series 
of  statutes  called  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  to  bring  the  church 
under  the  common  law  of  the  land,  but  was  only  temporarily  successful. 
By  subsequent  statutes  he  reorganized   the  administration  of  justice, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  trial  by  jury. 

312.  Town  Charters.  —  Under  Richard  I.  many  towns  secured 
charters  giving  them  the  control  of  their  own  affairs  in  great  measure. 
In  this  way  municipal   self-government  arose,  and  a  prosperous  and 
intelligent  class  of  merchants  and  artisans  grew  up  who  eventually 
obtained  important  political  influence  in  the  management  of  national 
affairs. 

313.  The  Great,  or  National,  Charter.  —  This  pledge  extorted 
from  King  John  in  1215  put  a  check  to  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  sov- 
ereign, and  guaranteed  the  rights  of  all  classes  from  the  serf  and  the 
townsman  to  the  bishop  and  baron.     It  consisted  originally  of  sixty- 
three  articles,  founded  mainly  on  the  first  royal  charter  (that  of  Henry 
I.),  given  in  noo.     (See  Paragraph  No.  185,  and  note.) 

It  was  not  a  statement  of  principles,  but  a  series  of  specific  remedies 
for  specific  abuses,  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  church  to  be  free  from  royal  interference,  especially  in  the 
election  of  bishops. 

2.  No  taxes  except  the  regular  feudal  dues  (see  Paragraph  No.  200), 
to  be  levied  except  by  the  consent  of  the  National  Council. 

3.  The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  (see  Paragraph  No.  197,  note)  not  to 
follow  the  king,  but  remain  stationary  at  Westminster.     Justice  to  be 
neither  sold,  denied,  nor  delayed.     No  man  to  be  imprisoned,  outlawed, 
punished,  or  otherwise  molested,  save  by  the  judgment  of  his  equals  or 


THE    ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  143 

the  law  of  the  land.     The  necessary  implements  of  all  freemen,  and  the 
farming-tools  of  villeins  or  serfs,  to  be  exempt  from  seizure. 

4.  Weights  and  measures  to  be  kept  uniform  throughout  the  realm. 
All  merchants  to  have  the  right  to  enter  and  leave  the  kingdom  without 
paying  exorbitant  tolls  for  the  privilege. 

5.  Forest  laws  to  be  justly  enforced. 

6.  The  charter  to  be  carried  out  by  twenty-four  barons  together  with 
the  mayor  of  London. 

This  document  marks  the  beginning  of  a  written  constitution,  and  it 
proved  of  the  highest  value  henceforth  in  securing  good  government. 
It  was  confirmed  thirty-seven  times  by  subsequent  kings  and  parlia- 
ments, the  confirmation  of  this  and  previous  charters  by  Edward  I.  in 
1297  being  of  especial  importance. 

314.  Rise  of  the  House  of  Commons.  —  In  1265,  under  Henry  III., 
through  the  influence  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  two  representatives  from 
each  city  and  borough,  or  town,  together  with  two  knights  of  the  shire, 
or  country  gentlemen,  were  summoned  to  meet  with  the  lords  and 
clergy  in  the  National  Council,  or  Parliament.     From  this  time  the 
body  of  the  people  began  to  have  a  voice  in  making  the  laws.     Later 
in  the  period  the  knights  of  the  shire  joined  the  representatives  from 
the  towns  in  forming  a  distinct  body  in  Parliament  sitting  by  them- 
selves under  the  name  of  the  House  of  Commons.     They  obtained  the 
power  of  levying  all  taxes,  and  also  of  impeaching  before  the  House 
of  Lords  any  government  officer  guilty  of  misuse  of  power. 

315.  New  Class  of  Barons.  —  Under  Henry  III.  other  influential 
men  of  the  realm,  aside  from  the  great  landholders  and  barons  by 
tenure,  began  to  be  summoned  to  the  king's  council.    These  were  called 
"barons  by  writ."     Later  (under  Richard  II.),  barons  were  created  by 
open  letters  bearing  the  royal  seal,  and  were  called  "barons  by  patent." l 

316.  Land  Laws.  —  During  this  period  important  laws  [De  Donis, 
or  Entail,  and  Quia  Emptores]  respecting  land  were  passed,  which  had 
the  effect  of  keeping  estates  in  families,  and  also  of  preventing  their 
possessors  from  evading  their  feudal  duties  to  the  king.     At  the  same 

1  This  is  the  modern  method  of  raising  a  subject  (eg.,  Lord  Tennyson)  to  the 
peerage.  It  marks  the  fact  that  from  the  thirteenth  century  the  ownership  of  land 
was  no  longer  considered  a  necessary  condition  of  nobility ;  and  that  the  peerage 
had  now  developed  into  the  five  degrees,  which  it  still  maintains,  of  dukes,  mar- 
quises, earls,  viscounts,  and  barons. 


144  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

time  a  restriction  on  the  acquisition  of  land  by  the  church  (Statute  of 
Mortmain),  which  was  exempt  from  paying  certain  feudal  dues,  was 
also  imposed  to  prevent  the  king's  revenue  from  being  diminished. 

RELIGION. 

317.  Restriction   of  the  Papal  Power.  —  During  the  Angevin 
period  the  popes  endeavored   to   introduce  the  canon  law  (a  body 
of  ordinances  consisting  mainly  of  the  decisions  of  church  councils 
and  popes)  into  England,  with  the  view  of  making  it  supreme;   but 
Parliament,  at  Merton,  refused  to  accept  it,  saying,  "  We  will  not  change 
the  laws  of  England."     The  Statute  of  Mortmain  was  also  passed  (see 
Paragraph  No.  278)  and  other  measures  (Statute  of  Provisors  and  Stat- 
ute of  Praemunire),  which  forbade  the  Pope  from  taking  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  and  other  ecclesiastics  out  of  the  hands  of  the  clergy ; 
and  which  prohibited  any  appeal  from  the  king's  court  to  the  papal 
court.     Furthermore,  many  hundreds  of  parishes,  formerly  filled  by 
foreigners  who  could   not  speak  English,  were   now  given  to  native 
priests,  and   the  sending  of  money  out  of  the   country  to  support 
foreign  ecclesiastics  was  in  great  measure  stopped. 

During  the  crusades  two  religious  military  orders  had  been  estab- 
lished, called  the  Knights  Hospitallers  and  the  Knights  Templars.  The 
object  of  the  former  was,  originally,  to  provide  entertainment  for  pil- 
grims going  to  Jerusalem  ;  that  of  the  latter,  to  protect  them.  Both  had 
extensive  possessions  in  England.  In  1312  the  order  of  Templars  was 
broken  up  on  a  charge  of  heresy  and  evil  life,  and  their  property  in 
England  given  to  the  Knights  Hospitallers,  who  were  also  called 
Knights  of  St.  John. 

318.  Reform.  —  The  Mendicant  Friars  began  a  reformatory  move- 
ment in  the  church  and  accomplished  much  good.     This  was  followed 
by  Wycliffe's  attack  on  religious  abuses,  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible, 
with  the  revival  carried  on  by  the  "Poor  Priests,"  and  by  the  rise  of 
the  Lollards,  who  were  eventually  punished  by  the  passage  of  severe 
laws,  partly  on  the  ground  of  their  heretical  opinions,  and  partly  be- 
cause they  became  in  a  measure  identified  with  socialistic  and  commu- 
nistic efforts  to  destroy  rank  and  equalize  property. 

MILITARY   AFFAIRS. 

319.  Scutage.  —  By  a  tax  called  scutage,  qr  shield-money,  levied 
on  all  knights  who  refused  to  serve  the  king  in  foreign  wars,  Henry  II. 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR   PLANTAGENETS.  14$ 

obtained  the  means  to  hire  soldiers.  By  a  law  reviving  the  national 
militia,  composed  of  freemen  below  the  rank  of  knights,  the  king  made 
himself  in  great  measure  independent  of  the  barons,  with  respect  to 
raising  troops. 

320.  Armor ;  Heraldry.  —  The  linked  or  mail  armor  now  began  to 
be  superseded  by  that  made  of  pieces  of  steel  joined  together  so  as  to 
fit  the  body.     This,  when   it  was  finally  perfected,  was  called  plate 
armor,  and  was  both  heavier  and  stronger  than  mail. 

With  the  introduction  of  plate  armor  and  the  closed  helmet  it  became 
the  custom  for  each  knight  to  wear  a  device,  called  a  crest,  on  his  helmet, 
and  also  to  have  one  called  a  coat  of  arms  (because  originally  worn  on 
a  loose  coat  over  the  armor).  This  served  to  distinguish  him  from 
others,  and  was  of  practical  use  not  only  to  the  followers  of  a  great 
lord,  who  thus  knew  him  at  a  glance,  but  it  served  in  time  of  battle  to 
prevent  the  confusion  of  friend  and  foe.  Eventually,  coats  of  arms 
became  hereditary,  and  the  descent,  and  to  some  extent  the  history, 
of  a  family  can  be  traced  by  them.  In  this  way  heraldry  serves  as  a  help 
to  the  knowledge  of  men  and  events. 

321.  Chivalry ;  Tournaments.  —  The  profession  of  arms  was  reg- 
ulated by  certain  rules,  by  which  each  knight  solemnly  bound  himself 
to  serve  the  cause  of  religion  and  the  king,  and  to  be  true,  brave,  and 
courteous  to  those  of  his  own  rank,  to  protect  the  ladies  and  succor 
all  persons  in  distress.     Under  Edward  III.  chivalry  reached  its  cul- 
mination and  began  to  decline.     One  of  the  grotesque  features  of  the 
attack  on  France  was  an  expedition  of  English  knights  with  one  eye 
bandaged  ;  this  half-blind  company  having  vowed  to  partially  renounce 
their  sight  until  they  did  some  glorious  deed.      The  chief  amusement 
of  the  nobles  and  knights  was  the  Tournament,  a  mock  combat  fought 
on  horseback,  in  full  armor,  which  sometimes  ended  in  a  real  battle. 
At  these  entertainments  a  lady  was  chosen  queen,  who  gave  prizes  to 
the  victors. 

322.  The  Use  of  the  Long-Bow;  Introduction  of  Cannon ;  Wars. 

—  The  common  weapon  of  the  yeomen,  or  foot-soldiers,  was  the  long- 
bow. It  was  made  of  yew-tree  wood,  and  was  of  the  height  of  the  user. 
Armed  with  this  weapon,  the  English  soldiers  proved  themselves  irre- 
sistible in  the  French  wars,  the  French  having  no  native  archers  of  any 
account. 

Roger  Bacon  is  supposed  to  have  known  the  properties  of  gunpowdei 


146  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

as  early  as  1250,  but  no  practical  use  was  made  of  the  discovery  until 
the  battle  of  Cre'cy,  1346,  when  a  few  very  small  cannon  are  said  to 
have  been  employed  by  the  English  against  the  enemy's  cavalry.  Later, 
they  were  used  to  throw  heavy  stones  in  besieging  castles.  Still  later, 
rude  hand-guns  came  slowly  into  use.  From  this  period  kings  gradu- 
ally began  to  realize  the  full  meaning  of  the  harmless-looking  black 
grains,  with  whose  flash  and  noise  the  Oxford  monk  had  amused  himself. 

The  chief  wars  of  the  time  were  the  contests  between  the  kings  and 
the  barons,  Richard  I.'s  crusade,  John's  war  with  France,  resulting  in 
the  loss  of  Normandy,  Edward  I.'s  conquest  of  Wales  and  temporary 
subjugation  of  Scotland,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War 
with  France  under  Edward  III. 

The  navy  of  this  period  was  made  up  of  small,  one-masted  vessels, 
seldom  carrying  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  fighting  men.  As  the 
mariner's  compass  had  now  come  into  general  use,  these  vessels  could, 
if  occasion  required,  make  voyages  of  considerable  length. 

LEARNING,   LITERATURE,   AND  ART. 

323.  Education.  —  In  1264  Walter  de  Merton  founded  the  first 
college  at  Oxford,  an  institution  which  has  ever  since  borne  his  name, 
and  which  really  originated  the  English  college  system.     During  the 
reign  of  Edward   III.,  William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
gave  a  decided  impulse  to  higher  education  by  the  establishment,  at  his 
own  expense,  of  Winchester   College,   the   first  great  public  school 
founded  in  England.     Later,  he  built  and  endowed  New  College  at 
Oxford  to  supplement  it.     In  Merton's  and  WykehanVs  institutions 
young  men  of  small  means  were  instructed,  and  in  great  measure  sup- 
ported, without  charge.     They  were  brought  together  under  one  roof, 
required  to  conform  to  proper  discipline,  and  taught  by  the  best  teach- 
ers of  the  day.     In  this  way  a  general  feeling  of  emulation  was  roused, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  fraternal  spirit  cultivated  which  had  a  strong 
influence  in  favor  of  a  broader  and  deeper  intellectual  culture  than  the 
monastic  schools  at  Oxford  and  elsewhere  had  encouraged. 

324.  Literature.  —  The  most  prominent  historical  work  was  that 
by  Matthew   Paris,  a  monk  of  St.  Albans,  written  in  Latin,  based 
largely  on  earlier  chronicles,  and  covering  a  period  from  the  Norman 
Conquest.  1066,  to  his  death,  in  1259.    It  is  a  work  of  much  value,  and 
was  continued  by  writers  of  the  same  abbey. 


THE    ANGEV1NS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  147 

The  first  English  prose  work  was  a  volume  of  travels  by  Sir  John 
Mandeville,  dedicated  to  Edward  III.  It  was  followed  by  WyclifiVs 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  English  from  the  Latin  version,  and  by 
Chaucer's  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  the  first  great  English  poem. 

325.  Architecture.  —  Edward  I.  and  his  successors  began  to  build 
structures  combining  the  palace  with  the  stronghold. l     Conway  and 
Caernarvon  Castles  in  Wales,  Warwick  Castle,  Warwickshire,  and  a 
great  part  of  Windsor  Castle  on  the  Thames,  twenty-three  miles  west 
of  London,  are  magnificent  examples,  the  last  still  being  occupied  as  a 
royal  residence. 

In  churches,  the  massive  architecture  of  the  Normans,  with  its  heavy 
columns  and  round  arches,  was  followed  by  Early  English,  or  the  first 
period  of  the  Gothic,  with  pointed  arches,  slender,  clustered,  columns  and 
tapering  spires  like  that  of  Salisbury  Cathedral.  Later  the  Decorated 
style  was  adopted.  It  was  characterized  by  broader  windows,  highly 
ornamented  to  correspond  with  the  elaborate  decoration  within,  which 
gave  this  style  its  name,  which  is  seen  to  best  advantage  in  Exeter 
Cathedral,  York  Minster  and  Merton  College  Chapel. 

GENERAL   INDUSTRY. 

326.  Fairs ;  Guilds.  —  The  domestic  trade  of  the   country  was 
largely  carried  on  during  this  period  by  great  fairs  held  at  stated  times 
by  royal  license.    Bunyan,  in  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  gives  a  vivid  picture 
of  one  of  these  centres  of  trade  and  dissipation,  under  the  name  of 
"Vanity  Fair."    Though  it  represents  the  great  fair  of  Sturbridge,  near 
Cambridge,  as  he  saw  it  in  the  I7th  century,  yet  it  undoubtedly  de- 
scribes similar  gatherings  in  the  time  of  the  Plantagenets.     In  all  large 
towns  the  merchants  had  formed  associations  for  mutual  protection 
and  the  advancement  of  trade  called  merchant-guilds.     Artisans  now 
instituted  similar  societies,  under  the  name  of  craft-guilds.     For  a  long 
time  the  merchant-guilds  endeavored  to  shut  out  the  craft-guilds,  the 
men,  as  they  said,  "  with  dirty  hands  and  blue  nails,"  from  having  any 
part  in  the  government  of  the  towns ;   but  eventually  the  latter  got 
their  full  share,  and  in  some  cases,  as  in  London,  became  the  more 

1  The  characteristic  features  of  the  Edwardian  castles  are  double  surrounding 
walls,  with  numerous  protecting  towers,  and  the  omission  of  the  square  Norman 
keep. 


148  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

influential  party  of  the  two.     In  London  they  still  survive  under  the 
name  of  the  "  City  Companies." 

327.  The  Wool  Trade.  —  Under  Edward  III.  a  flourishing  trade 
in  wool  grew  up  between  England  and  Flanders.     The  manufacture  of 
fine  woollen  goods  was  also  greatly  extended  in  England.    All  commerce 
at  this  period  was  limited  to  certain  market  towns  called  "  staples."    To 
these  places  material  and  goods  for  export  had  to  be  carried  in  order 
that  they  might  pay  duty  to  the  government  before  leaving  the  country. 
Imports  also  paid  duties.     If  an  Englishman  carried  goods  abroad  and 
sold  them  in  the  open  market  without  first  paying  a  tax  to  the  crown, 
he  was  liable  to  the  punishment  of  death. 

328.  The  Great  Strike.  —  The  scarcity  of  laborers  caused  by  the 
ravages  of  the  Black  Death  caused  a  general  strike  for  higher  wages  on 
the  part  of  free  workingmen,  and  also  induced  thousands  of  villeins  to 
run  away  from  their  masters,  in  order  to  get  work  on  their  own  account. 
The  general  uprising  which  a  heavy  poll-tax  caused  among  the  labor- 
ing class,  though  suppressed  at  the  time,  led  to  the  ultimate  emancipa- 
tion of  the  villeins,  by  a  gradual  process  extending  through  many  gener- 
ations. 

MODE   OF   LIFE,   MANNERS,   AND  CUSTOMS. 

329.  Dress ;  Furniture.  —  During  most  of  this  period  great  luxury 
in  dress  prevailed  among  the  rich  and  noble.     Silks,  velvets,  scarlet 
cloth  and  cloth  of  gold  were  worn  by  both  men  and  women.     At  one 
time  the  lords  and  gallants  at  court  wore  shoes  with  points  curled  up 
like  rams'  horns  and  fastened  to  the  knee  with  silver  chains.     Attempts 
were  made  by  the  government  to  abolish  this   and  other  ridiculous 
fashions,  and  also  to  regulate  the  cost  of  dress  according  to  the  rank 
and  means  of  the  wearer ;  but  the  effort  met  with  small  success.     Even 
the  rich  at  this  time  had  but  little  furniture  in  their  houses,  and  chairs 
were  almost  unknown.     The  floors  of  houses  were  strewn  with  rushes, 
which,  as  they  were  rarely  changed,  became  horribly  filthy,  and  were  a 
prolific  cause  of  sickness. 

330.  The  Streets ;   Amusements ;   Profanity.  —  The  streets  of 
London  and  other  cities  were  rarely  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
wide.    They  were  neither  paved  nor  lighted.     Pools  of  stagnant  water 
and  heaps  of  refuse  abounded.     There  was  no  sewerage.    The  only 
scavengers  were  the  crows.     The  houses  were  of  timber  and  plaster, 


THE   ANGEVINS,    OR    PLANTAGENETS.  140 

with  projecting  stories,  and  destructive  fires  were  common.  The 
chief  amusements  were  hunting  and  hawking,  contests  at  archery,  and 
tournaments.  Plays  were  acted  by  amateur  companies  on  stages  on 
wheels  which  could  be  moved  from  street  to  street.  The  subjects  con- 
tinued to  be  drawn  in  large  measure  from  the  Bible  and  from  legends 
of  the  saints.  They  served  to  instruct  men  in  Scripture  history,  in  an 
age  when  few  could  read.  The  instruction  was  not,  however,  always 
taken  to  heart,  as  profane  swearing  was  so  common  that  an  Englishman 
was  called  on  the  continent  by  his  favorite  oath,  which  the  French  re- 
garded as  a  sort  of  national  name  before  that  of  "  John  Bull "  had  come 
into  use. 


I5O  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 


VII. 

"  God's  most  dreaded  instrument, 
In  working  out  a  pure  intent, 
Is  man  —  arrayed  for  mutual  slaughter." 

WORDSWORTH; 


THE   SELF-DESTRUCTION   OF  FEUDALISM. 

BARON  against  BARON. 
THE  HOUSES  OF  LANCASTER  AND  YORK.  — 1399-1485. 

House  of  Lancaster  (the  Red  Rose).  House  of  York  (the  White  Rose). 

Henry  IV.,  1399-1413.  Edward  IV.,  1461-1483. 

Henry  V.,  1413-1422.  tEdward  V.,  1483. 
*Henry  VI.,  1422-1471.  Richard  III.,  1483-1485. 

331.  Henry  IV.'s  Accession.  —  Richard  II.  left  no  children. 
The  nearest  heir  to  the  kingdom  by  right  of  birth  was  the  boy 
Edmund  Mortimer,  a  descendant  of  Richard's  uncle  Lionel,  Duke 
of  Clarence.1  Henry  ignored  Mortimer's  claim,  and  standing 
before  Richard's  empty  throne  in  Westminster  Hall,  boldly  de- 
manded the  crown  for  himself.2  The  nation  had  suffered  so  much 
from  the  misgovernment  of  those  who  had  ruled  during  the  minor- 

*  Henry  VI.  deposed  1461 ;  reinstated  for  a  short  time  in  1470. 
t  Edward  V.  never  crowned. 

1  See  genealogical  table,  Paragraph  No.  309. 

2  "  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  I,  Henry  of  Lancaster,  chal- 
lenge this  realm  of  England  and  the  crown,  with  all  the  members  and  the  appur- 
tenances, as  that  I  am  descended  by  right  line  of  blood,  coming  from  the  good 
King  Henry  III.,  and  through  that  right  that  God  of  his  grace  hath  sent  me,  with 
help  of  kin  and  of  all  my  friends  to  recover  it,  the  which  realm  was  in  point  to  be 
undone  by  default  of  government  and  undoing  of  the  good  laws." 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  !$! 

ity  of  Richard,  that  they  wanted  no  more  boy  kings.     Parliament, 
therefore,  set  aside  the  direct  line  of  descent  and  accepted  Henry. 

332.  Conspiracy  in  Favor  of  Richard. — The  new  king  had 
hardly  seated  himself  on  the  throne  when  a  conspiracy  was  dis- 
covered, having  for  its  object  the  release  and  restoration  of  Rich- 
ard, still  a  prisoner  in  Pontefract  Castle.      The  plot  was  easily 
crushed.     A  month  later  Richard  was  found  dead.     Henry  had 
his  body  brought  up  to  London  and  exposed  to  public  view  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  in  order  that  not  only  the  people,  but  all  would- 
be  conspirators  might  now  see  that  Richard's  hands  could  never 
again  wield  the  sceptre. 

There  was,  however,  one  man  at  least  who  refused  to  be  con- 
vinced. Owen  Glendower,  a  Welshman,  whom  the  late  king  had 
befriended,  declared  that  Richard  was  still  living,  and  that  the 
corpse  exhibited  was  not  his  body.  Glendower  prepared  to  main- 
tain his  belief  by  arms.  King  Henry  mustered  a  force  with  the 
intention  of  invading  Wales  and  crushing  the  rebel  on  his  own 
ground  ;  but  a  succession  of  terrible  tempests  ensued.  The  Eng- 
lish soldiers  got  the  idea  that  Glendower  raised  these  storms,  for 
as  an  old  chronicle  declares:  "Through  art  magike  he  "  [Glen- 
dower] "caused  such  foule  weather  of  winds,  tempest,  raine,  snow, 
and  haile  to  be  raised  for  the  annoiance  of  the  King's  armie,  that 
the  like  had  not  beene  heard  of."1  For  this  reason  the  troops 
became  disheartened,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to  postpone  the 
expedition. 

333.  Revolt  of  the  Percies. — The  Percy  family  had  been  active 
in  helping  Henry  to  obtain  the  throne,2  and  had  spent  large  sums 
in  defending  the  North  against  invasions  from  Scotland.3     They 
expected  a  royal  reward  for  these  services,  and  were  sorely  dis- 
appointed because  they  did  not  get  it.     As  young  Henry  Percy 
said  of  the  King  :  — 

1  Holinshed's  Chronicle. 

2  Thomas  Percy,  Earl  of  Worcester,  with  Henry  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, and  his  son  Sir  Henry  Percy,  or  "  Hotspur." 

3  See  the  Ballad  of  Chevy  Chase, 


152  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

"  My  father,  and  my  uncle,  and  myself, 
Did  give  him  that  same  royalty  he  wears; 
And,  —  when  he  was  not  six-and-twenty  strong, 
Sick  in  the  world's  regard,  wretched  and  low, 
A  poor,  unminded  outlaw  sneaking  home,  — 
My  father  gave  him  welcome  to  the  shore : 
******** 
Swore  him  assistance  and  perform'd  it  too." l 

But  the  truth  is,  Henry  had  little  to  give  except  promises.  Parlia- 
ment voted  money  cautiously,  limiting  its  supplies  to  specific  pur- 
poses; and  men  of  wealth,  feeling  anxious  about  the  issue  of 
the  king's  usurpation,  —  for  such  many  regarded  it  —  were  afraid 
to  lend  him  what  he  required.  Furthermore,  the  king  was 
hampered  by  a  council  whose  advice  he  had  pledged  himself 
to  follow.  For  these  reasons  Henry's  position  was  in  every  way 
precarious.  He  had  no  clear  title  to  the  throne,  and  he  had 
no  means  to  buy  military  support.  In  addition  to  these  diffi- 
culties, Henry  had  made  an  enemy  of  Sir  Henry  Percy  by 
refusing  to  ransom  his  brother-in-law,  a  Mortimer,2  whom  Glen- 
dower  had  captured,  but  whom  the  king  wished  well  out  of  the 
way  with  all  others  of  that  name.  Young  Percy  proved  a  danger- 
ous foe.  His  hot  temper  and  impetuous  daring  had  got  for  him 
the  title  of  "  the  Hotspur  of  the  North."  He  was  so  fond  of  fight- 
ing that  Shakespeare  speaks  of  him  as  "  he  that  kills  me  some  six 
or  seven  dozen  of  Scots  at  a  breakfast,  washes  his  hands,  and  says 
to  his  wife,  Fie  upon  this  quiet  life!  I  want  work."  *  It  was  this 
"  fire-eater,"  who  with  his  father,  and  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Wor- 
cester, with  the  Scotch  Earl  of  Douglas  and  Glendower,  now 
formed  an  alliance  to  force  Henry  to  give  up  the  throne. 

334.   Battle  of  Shrewsbury. — At  Shrewsbury,  on  the  edge  of 
Wales,  the  armies  of  the  king  and  of  the  revolutionists  met.     A 

1  Shakespeare,  Henry  IV.,  Part  I.  Act  IV.  Sc.  3. 

2  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer :  he  was   uncle   to  the   Edmund   Mortimer,  Earl   of 
March,  who  was  heir  to  the  crown.    See  Bailey's  Succession  to  the  English  Crown. 

8  Shakespeare,  Henry  IV.,  Part  I.  Act  II.  Sc  4. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  I  $3 

number  of  Henry's  enemies  had  sworn  to  single  him  out  in  battle. 
The  plot  was  divulged,  and  it  is  said  thirteen  knights  arrayed 
themselves  in  armor  resembling  the  king's  in  order  to  mislead  the 
assailants.  The  whole  thirteen  perished  on  that  bloody  field, 
where  fat  Sir  John  Falstaff  vowed  he  fought  on  Henry's  behalf  "  a 
long  hour  by  Shrewsbury  clock."  1  The  insurgents  were  utterly 
defeated.  Douglas  was  taken  prisoner,  "  Hotspur  "  was  killed, 
and  several  of  his  companions  were  beheaded  after  the  battle.  But 
new  insurrections  arose,  and  the  country  was  far  from  enjoying  any 
permanent  peace. 

335.  Persecution  of  the  Lollards ;  the  First  Martyr.  —  Thus 
far  Henry  had  spent  much  time  in  crushing  rebels,  but  he  had 
also  given  part  of  it  to  burning  heretics.  To  gain  the  favor  of  the 
clergy,  and  thus  render  his  throne  more  secure,  the  king  had 
favored  the  passage  of  a  law'  by  the  lords  and  bishops  (for  the 
House  of  Commons  had  no  part  in  it),  by  which  the  Lollards  and 
others  who  dissented  from  the  doctrines  of  Rome  would  be  pun- 
ished with  death.  William  Sawtrey,  a  London  clergyman,  was  the 
first  victim  under  the  new  law  (1401).  He  had  declared  that  he 
would  not  worship  "  the  cross  on  which  Christ  suffered,  but  only 
Christ  himself  who  had  suffered  on  the  cross."  He  had  also  openly 
denied  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  or  the  power  of  the 
priesthood  to  change  the  sacramental  bread  into  the  actual  body 
of  the  Saviour.  For  these  and  minor  heresies  he  was  burned  at 
Smithfield,  in  London,  in  the  presence  of  a  great  multitude.  Some 
years  later  a  second  martyrdom  took  place.  But  as  the  English 
people  would  not  allow  torture  to  be  used  in  the  case  of  the 
Knights  Templars  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.,2  so  they  never  favored 
the  idea  that  by  committing  the  body  to  the  flames  error  could 
thereby  be  burned  out  of  the  soul.  The  Lollards,  indeed,  were 
still  cast  into  prison,  as  some  of  the  extreme  and  communistic  part 
of  them  doubtless  deserved  to  be,  but  we  hear  of  no  more  being 

l  Shakespeare,  Henry  IV.,  Part  I.  Act  V.  Sc.  4. 
a  See  Paragraph  No.  317. 


154  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

put  to  cruel  deaths  during  Henry's  reign,  though  later,  the  utmost 
rigor  of  the  law  was  again  to  some  extent  enforced. 

336.  Henry's  Last  Days.  —  Toward  the  close  of  his  life  the 
king  seems  to  have  thought  of  reviving  the  crusades  for  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem,  where,  according  to  tradition,  an  old  predic- 
tion declared  that  he  should  die.     But  his  Jerusalem  was  nearer 
than  that  of  Palestine.     While  praying  at  the  tomb  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  in  Westminster  Abbey,  he  was  seized  with  mortal  illness. 
His  attendants  carried  him  into  a  room  near  by.     When  he  re- 
covered consciousness,  and  inquired  where  he  was,  he  was  told 
that  the  apartment  was  called  the  Jerusalem  Chamber.     "  Praise 
be  to  God,"  he  exclaimed,  "  then  here  I  die  !  "    There  he  breathed 
his  last,  saying  to  his  son,  young  Prince  Henry :  — 

"  God  knows,  my  son, 

By  what  by-paths  and  indirect  crook'd  ways, 
I  met  this  crown;   and  I  myself  know  well 
How  troublesome  it  sat  upon  my  head; 
To  thee  it  shall  descend  with  better  quiet, 
Better  opinion,  better  confirmation; 
For  all  the  soil  of  the  achievement l  goes 
With  me  into  the  earth." 

337.  Summary.  —  At  the  outset  of  his  reign  Parliament  showed 
its  power  by  changing  the  succession  and  making  Henry  king  in- 
stead of  young  Edmund  Mortimer,  the  direct  hereditary  heir  to 
the  crown.     Though  successful  in  crushing  rebellion,  Henry  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  the  guidance  of  a  council,  and  was  rendered 
more  entirely  dependent  on  Parliament,  especially  in  the  matter 
of  supplies,  than  any  previous  king.     For  the  first  time  in  English 
history  heresy  was  made  punishable  by  death ;   yet  such  was  the 
restraining  influence  of  the  people,  that  but  two  executions  took 
place. 

1  "  Soil  of  the  achievement : "  stain  or  blame  by  which  the  crown  was  won.   Henry 
IV.,  Part  II.  Act  IV.  Sc.  4. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  155 


HENRY  V.  — 1413-1422. 

338.  Lollard  Outbreak  at  Henry's  Accession.  —  Henry's  youth 
had  been  wild  and  dissolute,  but  the  weight  of  the  crown  sobered 
him.     He  cast  off  poor  old  Jack  Falstaff  and  his  other  roistering 
companions,  and  began  his  new  duties  in  earnest. 

Sir  John  Oldcastle,  or  Lord  Cobham,  was  at  this  time  the  most 
influential  man  among  the  Lollards.  He  was  now  brought  to  trial 
and  convicted  of  heresy.  The  penalty  was  death ;  but  the  king 
granted  him  a  respite,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  recant.  Old- 
castle  managed  to  escape  from  prison.  Immediately  after,  a  con- 
spiracy was  detected  among  the  Lollards  for  seizing  the  govern- 
ment, destroying  the  chief  monasteries  in  and  about  London,  and 
raising  Oldcastle  to  power.  Henry  attacked  the  rebels  unawares, 
killed  many,  and  took  a  large  number  of  prisoners,  who  were  exe- 
cuted on  a  double  charge  of  heresy  and  treason.  Several  years 
afterwards  Oldcastle  was  also  executed. 

339.  Report  that  Richard  n.  was  Alive. — A  strange  report 
now  began  to  circulate.     It  was  said  that  Richard  II.  had  been 
seen  in  Scotland,  and  that  he  was  preparing  to  claim  the  throne 
which  Henry's  father  had  taken  from  him.     To  silence  this  sedi- 
tious rumor,  the  king  exhumed  Richard's  body  from  its  grave  in 
the  little  village  of  Larigley,  Hertfordshire.     The  ghastly  remains 
were  propped  up  in  a  chair  of  state  so  that  all  might  see  them. 
In  this  manner  the  king  and  his  court  escorted  the  corpse  in 
solemn  procession  to  Westminster  Abbey,  where  it  was  re-interred 
among  the  tombs  of  the  English  sovereigns.     With  it  he  buried 
once  for  all  the  troublesome  falsehood  which  had  kept  up  insurrec- 
tion, and  had  made  the  deposed  king  more  feared  after  death  than 
he  had  ever  been  during  life. 

340.  War  with  France.  —  To  divert  the  attention  of  the  nation 
from  dangerous  home  questions  likely  to  cause  fresh  revolts,  Henry 
now  determined  to  act  on  his  father's  dying  counsel  and  pick  a 
foreign  quarrel.     The  old  grudge  against  France  which  began  with 


156  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  feuds  of  Duke  William  of  Normandy  before  he  conquered 
England,  made  a  war  with  that  country  always  popular.  At  this 
period  the  French  were  divided  into  fierce  parties  who  hated  each 
other  even  more,  if  possible,  than  they  hated  the  English.  This, 
of  course,  greatly  increased  the  chances  of  Henry's  success,  as  he 
might  form  an  alliance  with  one  of  these  factions. 

The  king  believed  it  a  good  opportunity  to  get  three  things  he 
wanted,  —  a  wife,  a  fortune,  and  the  French  crown.  The  king  of 
France  and  his  most  powerful  rival,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  had 
each  a  daughter.  To  make  sure  of  one  of  them,  Henry  secretly 
proposed  to  both.  After  long  and  fruitless  negotiations,  the  French 
king  declined  to  grant  the  enormous  dowry  which  the  English  king 
demanded.  The  latter  gladly  interpreted  this  refusal  as  equivalent 
to  a  declaration  of  war. 

341.  Battle  of  Agincourt1  (1415).  — Henry  set  to  work  with 
vigor,  raised  an  army,  and  invaded  France.  He  besieged  Harfleur, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  and  took  it ;  but  his  army  had  suffered 
so  much  from  sickness  that,  after  leaving  a  garrison  in  the  place,  he 
resolved  to  move  north,  to  Calais,  and  await  re-enforcements.  After 
a  long  and  perilous  .march  he  reached  a  little  village  about  mid- 
way between  Crecy  and  Calais.  There  he  encountered  the  enemy 
in  great  force.  Both  sides  prepared  for  battle.  The  French  had 
fifty  thousand  troops  to  Henry's  seven  or  eight  thousand ;  but  the 
latter  had  that  determination  which  wins  victories,  and  said  to  one 
of  his  nobles  who  regretted  that  he  had  not  a  larger  force  :  — 

"  No,  my  fair  cousin; 
If  we  are  marked  to  die,  we  are  enough 
To  do  our  country  loss;   and  if  we  live, 
The  fewer  men,  the  greater  share  of  honor."  2 

A  heavy  rain  had  fallen  during  the  night,  and  the  ploughed  land 
over  which  the  French  must  cross  was  so  wet  and  miry  that  their 
heavily  armed  horsemen  sank  deep  at  every  step.  The  English 

1  Agincourt  (ah'zhan'koor'). 

2  Henry  V.,  Act  IV.  Sc.  3. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  157 

bowmen,  on  the  other  hand,  being  on  foot,  could  move  with  ease. 
Henry  ordered  every  archer  to  drive  a  stake,  sharpened  at  both 
ends,  into  the  ground  before  him.  This  was  a  substitute  for  the 
modern  bayonet,  and  presented  an  almost  impassable  barrier  to 
the  French  cavalry. 

As  at  Cr£cy  and  Poitiers,  the  English  bowmen  gained  the  day. 
The  sharp  stakes  stopped  the  enemy's  horses,  and  the  blinding 
showers  of  arrows  threw  the  splendidly  armed  knights  into  wild 
confusion.  With  a  ringing  cheer  Henry's  troops  rushed  forward. 

"  Then  down  their  bows  they  threw, 
And  forth  their  swords  they  drew, 
And  on  the  French  they  flew : 

No  man  was  tardy. 
Arms  from  the  shoulder  sent; 
Scalps  from  the  teeth  they  rent; 
Down  the  French  peasants  went : 

These  were  men  hardy."  l 

When  the  fight  was  over,  the  king  asked,  "  What  is  the  name  of 
that  castle  yonder?"  He  was  told  it  was  called  Agincourt. 
"  Then,"  said  he,  "  from  henceforth  this  shall  be  known  as  the 
battle  of  Agincourt." 

342.  Treaty  of  Troyes2  (1420) ;  Henry's  Death.  —  Henry  went 
back  in  triumph  to  England.  Two  years  later  he  again  invaded 
France.  His  victorious  course  continued.  In  1420,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Troyes,  he  gained  all  he  had  planned  to  get.  He  obtained 
large  sums  of  money,  the  French  Princess  Katherine  in  marriage, 
and  the  promise  of  the  crown  of  France  on  the  death  of  her 
father,  Charles  VI.,  who  was  then  insane  and  feeble.  Meantime 
Henry  was  to  govern  the  kingdom  as  regent. 

Henry  returned  to  England  with  the  bride  he  had  won  by  the 
sword,  but  he  was  soon  recalled  to  France  by  a  revolt  against  his 

1  These  vigorous  lines,  from  Drayton's   Ballad  of  Agincourt,  if  not  quite  true 
to  the  letter  of  history  (since  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  French  peasants  were  on  the 
field),  are  wholly  true  to  its  spirit. 

2  Troyes  (trwS). 


158  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

power.  He  died  there,  leaving  an  infant  son,  Henry.  Two  months 
afterward  Charles  VI.  died,  so  that  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
Henry's  son  now  inherited  the  French  crown. 

343.  Summary.  —  The  one  great  event  with  which  Henry  V.'s 
name  is  connected  is  the  conquest  of  France.     It  was  hailed  at 
the  time  as  a  glorious  achievement,  and  in  honor  of  it  his  tomb  in 
Westminster  Abbey  was  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  king  having 
a  head  of  solid  silver.     Eventually  the  head  was  stolen  and  never 
recovered.     The  theft  was  typical  of  Henry's  short-lived  victories 
abroad,  for  all  the  territory  he  had  gained  was  soon  destined  to  be 
hopelessly  lost. 

HENRY  VI.  (House  of  Lancaster,  Red  Rose).—  1422-1471.* 

344.  Accession  of  Henry ;  Renewal  of  the  French  War. — The 

heir  to  all  the  vast  dominions  left  by  Henry  V.  was  proclaimed 
king  of  England  and  France  when  in  his  cradle,  and  crowned, 
while  still  a  child,  first  at  Westminster  and  then  at  Paris. 

But  the  accession  to  the  French  possessions  was  merely  an 
empty  form,  for  as  the  son  of  the  late  Charles  VI.  of  France  re- 
fused to  abide  by  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  and  give  up  the  throne,  war 
again  broke  out. 

345.  Siege  of  Orleans.2  —  The  Duke  of  Bedford3  fought  vigor- 
ously in  Henry's  behalf.    In  five  years  the  English  had  got  posses- 
sion of  most   of  the   country  north   of  the   Loire.      They  now 
determined  to  make  an  effort  to  drive  the  French  prince  south  of 
that  river.     To  accomplish  this  they  must  take  the  strongly  forti- 
fied town  of  Orleans  which  was  situated  on  its  banks.     Forts  were 
accordingly  built  around  the  place,  and  cannon  planted  to  batter 
down  its  walls.     Six  months  later  so  much  progress  had  been 

1  Dethroned  1461,  restored  for  a  few  months  in  1470,  died  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, 1471. 

2  Orleans  (or'  la-on). 

8  During  Henry's  minority,  John,  Duke  of  Bedford,  was  protector  of  the  realm. 
When  absent  in  France,  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  acted  for  him. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  159 

made  in  the  siege,  that  it  was  plain  the  city  could  not  hold  out 
much  longer.  The  fortunes  of  France  seemed  to  depend  on  the 
fate  of  Orleans.  If  it  fell,  they  would  go  with  it. 

346.  Joan  of  Arc.1  — At  this  juncture,  Joan  of  Arc,  a  peasant 
girl  of  eighteen,  came  forward  to  inspire  her  despairing  country- 
men with  fresh  courage.     She  believed  that  Heaven  had  called 
her  to  drive  the  English  from  the  land.     The  troops  rallied  round 
her.     Clad  in  white  armor,  mounted  on  a  white  war-horse,  she  led 
the  troops  from  victory  to  victory,  until  she  saw  Prince  Charles 
triumphantly  crowned  in  the  Cathedral  of  Rheims.1     There  her 
fortune  changed.     Her  own  people  basely  abandoned  her.    The 
unworthy  King  Charles  made  no  attempt  to  protect  the  "  Maid  of 
Orleans,"  and  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  infuriated  English, 
who  believed  she  was  in  Inpir  rrith  thr  rtsrfr"  In  accordance  with 
this  belief  Joan  was  tried  for  witchcraft  and  heresy  at  Rouen,  and 
sentenced  to  the  flames.     She  died  as  bravely  as  she  had  lived, 
saying  in  her  last  agonies  that  her  celestial  voices  had  not  deceived 
her,  and  that  through  them  she  had  saved  France. 

"  God  forgive  us,"  exclaimed  one  of  Henry's  courtiers  who  was 
present;  "we  are  lost !  We  have  burned  a  saint !"  It  was  the 
truth ;  and  from  the  martyred  girl's  ashes  a  new  spirit  seemed  to 
go  forth  to  bless  her  ungrateful  country.  The  heart  of  France  was 
touched.  The  people  rose  against  their  invaders.  Before  Henry 
VI.  reached  his  thirtieth  year  the  Hundred  Years'  War  with 
France  which  Edward  III.  had  begun,  was  ended,  and  England 
had  lost  all  of  her  possessions  on  the  continent,  except  a  bare 
foothold  at  Calais. 

347.  Henry  VI.'s  Character  and  Marriage. — When  Henry 
became  of  age  he  proved  to  be  but  the  shadow  of  a  king.     His 
health  and  character  were  alike  feeble.     At  twenty-five  he  married 

1  The  name  given  by  the  English  to  Jeanne  d'Arc,  or  Dare.  Later,  the  French 
called  her  La  Pucelle,  "The  Maid";  or  La  Pucelle  d'Orleans,  "The  Maid  of 
Orleans." 

*  Rheims  (rSnz). 


I6O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  beautiful  and  unfortunate  Margaret  of  Anjou,  who  was  by  far 
the  better  ro|ft,of  the  two.  When  years  of  disaster  came,  this 
dauntless  "  queen  of  tears  "  headed  councils,  led  armies,  and  ruled 
both  king  and  kingdom. 

348.  Poverty  of  the  Crown  and  Wealth  of  the  Nobles.  —  One 

cause  of  the  weakness  of  the  government  was  its  poverty.  The 
revenues  of  the  crown  had  been  greatly  diminished  by  gifts  and 
grants  to  favorites.  The  king  was  obliged  to  pawn  his  jewels 
and  the  silver  plate  from  his  table  to  pay  his  wedding  expenses ; 
and  it  is  said  on  high  authority l  that  the  royal  couple  were  some- 
times in  actual  want  of  a  dinner. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  other  great  lords 
had  made  fortunes  out  of  the  French  wars,2  and  lived  in  regal 
splendor.  The  earl,  it  is  said,  had  at  his  different  castles  and  his 
city  mansion  in  London,  upwards  of  thirty  thousand  men  in  his 
service.  Their  livery,  or  uniform,  a  bright  red  jacket  with  the 
Warwick  arms,  a  bear  erect  holding  a  ragged  staff,  embroidered  on 
it  in  white,  was  seen,  known,  and  feared  throughout  the  country. 
Backed  by  such  forces  it  was  easy  for  the  earl  and  other  powerful 
lords  to  overawe  kings,  parliaments,  and  courts.  Between  these 
heads  of  the  great  houses  quarrels  were  constantly  breaking  out. 
The  safety  of  the  people  was  endangered  by  these  feuds,  which 
became  more  and  more  violent,  and  often  ended  in  bloodshed  and 
murder. 

349.  Disfranchisement  of  the  Commons.  —  With  the  growth  of 
power  on  the  part  of  the  nobles,  there  was  also  imposed  for  the 
first  time  a  restriction  on  the  right  of  the  people  to  vote  for  mem- 
bers of  Parliament.     Up  to  this  period  all  freemen  might  take 
part  in  the  election  of  representatives  chosen  by  the  counties  to  sit 
in  the  House  of  Commons. 


1  Fortescue,  on  the  Governance  of  England  (Plummer). 

2  First,  by  furnishing  troops  to  the  government,  the  feudal  system  having  now 
so  far  decayed  that  many  soldiers  had  to  be  hired ;    second,  by  the  plunder  of 
French  cities ;  third,  by  ransoms  obtained  from  noblemen  taken  prisoners. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  l6l 

A  law  was  now  passed  forbidding  any  one  to  vote  at  these  elec- 
tions unless  he  was  a  resident  of  the  county  and  possessed  of 
landed  property  yielding  an  annual  income  of  forty  shillings 
($200). l  Subsequently  it  was  further  enacted  that  no  county  can- 
didate should  be  eligible  unless  he  was  a  man  of  means  and  social 
standing.  These  two  measures  were  blows  against  the  free  self- 
government  of  the  nation,  since  their  manifest  tendency  was  to 
make  the  House  of  Commons  represent  the  property  rather  than 
the  people  of  the  country. 

350.  Cade's  Rebellion.  —  In  1450  a  formidable  rebellion  broke 
out  in  Kent,  then,  as  now,  one  of  the  most  independent  and  dem- 
ocratic counties  in  England.  The  leader  was  Jack  Cade,  who 
called  himself  by  the  popular  name  of  Mortimer,  claiming  to  be 
cousin  to  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  a  nephew  of  that  Edmund  Mor- 
timer, now  dead,  whom  Henry  IV.  had  unjustly  deprived  of  his 
succession  to  the  crown. 

Cade,  who  was  a  mere  adventurer,  was  quite  likely  used  as  a 
tool  by  plotters  much  higher  than  himself,  who,  by  putting  him 
forward,  could  thus  judge  whether  the  country  was  ready  for  a 
revolution  and  change  of  sovereigns. 

Wat  Tyler's  rebellion,  seventy  years  before,  was  almost  purely 
social  in  its  character,  having  for  its  object  the  emancipation  of 
the  enslaved  laboring  classes.  Cade's  insurrection  was,  on  the 
contrary,  almost  wholly  political.  His  chief  complaint  was  that 
the  people  were  not  allowed  their  free  choice  in  the  election  of 
representatives,  but  were  forced  by  the  nobility  to  choose  candi- 
dates they  did  not  want. 

Other  grievances  for  which  reform  was  demanded  were  exces- 
sive taxation  and  the  rapacity  of  the  evil  counsellors  who  con- 
trolled the  king. 

Cade  entered  London  with  a  body  of  twenty  thousand  men. 


1  The  income  required  by  the  statute  was  forty  shillings,  which,  says  Freeman, 
we  may  fairly  call  forty  pounds  of  our  present  money.  See  Freeman's  Growth  of 
the  English  Constitution,  p.  97. 


l62  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

He  took  formal  possession  of  the  place  by  striking  his  sword  on 
London  Stone,  —  a  Roman  monument  still  standing,  which  then 
marked  the  centre  of  the  ancient  city,  —  saying,  as  Shakespeare 
reports  him,  "  Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of  this  city."  *  After  three 
days  of  riot  and  the  murder  of  the  king's  treasurer,  the  rebellion 
came  to  an  end  through  a  general  pardon.  Cade,  however,  en- 
deavored to  raise  a  new  insurrection  in  the  South,  but  was  shortly 
after  captured,  and  died  of  his  wounds. 

351.  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1455-1485).  — The  real  significance 
of  Cade's  insurrection  is  that  it  showed  the  wide-spread  feeling  of 
discontent  caused  by  misgovernment,  and  that  it  served  as  an  in- 
troduction to  the  long  and  dreary  period  of  civil  strife  known  as 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  So  long  as  the  English  nobles  had  France 
for  a  fighting-ground,  French  cities  to  plunder,  and  French  cap- 
tives to  hold  for  heavy  ransoms,  they  were  content  to  let  matters 
go  on  quietly  at  home.  But  that  day  was  over.  Through  the  bad 
management,  if  not  through  the  positive  treachery  of  Edmund, 
Duke  of  Somerset,  the  French  conquests  had  been  lost,  a  weak 
king,  at  times  insane,  sat  on  the  English  throne,  while  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  a  really  able  man  and  a  descendant  of  the  Morti- 
mers, was,  as  many  believed,  unlawfully  excluded  from  it.  This 
fact  in  itself  would  have  furnished  a  plausible  pretext  for  hostilities, 
even  as  far  back  as  Cade's  rising.  But  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Henry 
in  1453  probably  gave  the  signal  for  the  outbreak,  since  it  cut  off 

1 "  Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of  this  city ;  and  here,  sitting  upon  London  Stone,  I 
charge  and  command,  that  at  the  city's  cost,  this  conduit  runs  nothing  but  claret 
wine  this  first  year  of  our  reign ;  and  now  it  shall  be  treason  for  any  man  to  call 
me  other  than  Lord  Mortimer."  Henry  VI.,  Part  II.  Act  IV.  Sc.  6. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  here,  as  elsewhere  in  his  historical  plays,  the  great 
dramatist  expresses  little,  if  any,  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  the  people.  In  King 
John  he  does  not  mention  the  Great  Charter,  in  Richard  II.  he  passes  over  Wat 
Tyler  without  a  word,  while  in  Henry  VI.  he  mentions  Cade  only  to  ridicule 
him  and  his  movement.  The  explanation  of  this  lies,  perhaps,  in  the  fact  that 
Shakespeare  lived  in  an  age  when  England  was  threatened  by  both  open  and 
secret  enemies.  The  need  of  his  time  was  a  strong,  steady  hand  at  the  helm ;  it 
was  no  season  for  reform  or  change  of  any  sort.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  he 
was  silent  in  regard  to  democratic  risings  and  demands  in  the  past. 


THE   SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  163 

all  hopes  which  Richard's  friends  may  have  had  of  his  peaceful 
succession. 

352.  The  Scene  in  the  Temple  Garden.  —  Shakespeare  repre- 
sents the  smouldering  feud  between  the  rival  houses  of  Lancaster 
and  York  (both  of  whom  it  should  be  remembered  were  descend- 
ants of  Edward  III.)1  as  breaking  into  an  angry  quarrel  in  the 
Temple  Garden,  London,  when  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  says :  — 

"  Let  him  that  is  a  true-born  gentleman, 
And  stands  upon  the  honor  of  his  birth, 
If  he  suppose  that  I  have  pleaded  truth, 
From  off  this  brier  pluck  a  white  rose  with  me." 

To  which  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset,2  a  descendant  of 


i  Table  showing  the  descendants  of  Edward  III.,  with  reference  to  the  claims  of 
Lancaster  and  York  to  the  crown :  — 

Edward  III. 


Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence  (3d  son) 

Philippa. 

John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster  (4th  son) 

Edmund,  Duke  Of 
York  (5th  son) 

Richard,  Earl  of 

Henry  IV.     John)  Earl 

I  of  Somerset,  f    Cambridge,  m. 

Roger  Mortimer.  Henry  V.  I  Anne  Morti- 

| —  — I  Henry  VL     John,    Edmund,    mer* 

Edmund  Morti-     Anne  Morti-  |  Duke    Duke  of 

mer  (Earl  of      mer,  m.  Rich-   Prince  Edward,  of  Som-  Somerset. 
March),d.  1424.  ard,  Earl  of    b.  1453;  killed    erset, 
Cambridge  (s.      at  battle  of      <j.  1448. 
of  Edmund,       Tewksbury, 


Duke  of  York)          1471. 

I 

*  Richard,  Duke 
of  York. 


t  John,  Earl  of  Somerset,  was 
an  illegitimate  half-brother  of 
Henry  IV.'s,  but  was,  in  1397, 
declared  legitimate  by  act  of 
Parliament  and  a  papal  decree. 


*  Inherited  the  title  of  Duke  of  York  from  his  father's  eldest  brother  Edward,  Duke  of 
York,  who  died  without  issue. 

Richard's  father,  the  Earl  of  Cambridge,  had  forfeited  his  title  and  estates  by  treason; 
but  Parliament  had  so  far  limited  the  sentence  that  his  son  was  not  thereby  debarred  from  in- 
heriting his  uncle's  rank  and  fortune. 

Richard,  Duke  of  York,  now  represented  the  direct  hereditary  line  of  succession  to  the 
crown,  while  Henry  VI.  and  his  son  represented  that  established  by  Parliament  through 
acceptance  of  Henry  IV.  Compare  Table,  Paragraph  No.  309. 

2  John,  Duke  of  Somerset,  died  1448.  He  was  brother  of  Edmund,  Duke  oi 
Somerset,  who  was  slain  at  St.  Albans  1455. 


164  LEADING    FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  house  of  Lancaster,  who  has  just  accused  Richard  of  being 
the  dishonored  son  of  a  traitor,  replies  :  — 

"  Let  him  that  is  no  coward,  nor  no  flatterer, 
But  dare  maintain  the  party  of  the  truth, 
Pluck  a  red  rose  from  off  this  thorn  with  me." 

The  Earl  of  Warwick  rejoins  :  — 

"  This  brawl  to-day, 

Grown  to  this  faction  in  the  Temple-garden, 
Shall  send,  between  the  red  rose  and  the  white, 
A  thousand  souls  to  death  and  deadly  night."1 

353.  The  Real  Object  of  the  War. —The  war,  however,  did 
not  directly  originate  in  this  quarrel,  but  rather  in  the  strife  for 
power  between  Edmund,  Duke  of  Somerset  (John's  brother),  and 
Richard,  Duke  of  York.  Each  desired  to  get  the  control  of  the 
government,  though  at  first  neither  appears  to  have  openly  aimed 
at  the  crown. 

During  Henry's  attack  of  insanity  in  1453  Richard  was  ap- 
pointed Protector  of  the  realm,  and  shortly  after,  the  Duke  of 
Somerset,  the  king's  particular  favorite  and  chief  adviser,  was  cast 
into  prison  on  the  double  charge  of  having  culpably  lost  Nor- 
mandy and  embezzled  public  moneys. 

In  1455,  when  Henry  recovered,  he  released  Somerset  and 
restored  him  to  office.  Richard  protested,  and  raising  an  army  in 
the  north,  marched  toward  London.  He  met  the  royalist  forces  at 
St.  Albans ;  a  battle  ensued,  and  Somerset  was  slain. 

During  the  next  thirty  years  the  war  raged  with  more  or  less 
fury  between  the  parties  of  the  Red  Rose  (Lancaster)  and  the 
White  (York),  the  first  maintaining  the  right  of  Parliament  to 
choose  such  king  as  they  saw  fit,  as  in  Henry  IV.'s  case ;  the 
second  insisting  on  the  succession  being  determined  by  strict 
hereditary  descent,  as  represented  in  the  claim  of  Richard. 

But  beneath  the  surface  the  contest  was  not  for  principle,  but 
for  place  and  spoils.  The  great  nobles,  who  during  the  French 


I  Shakespeare's  Henry  VI.,  Part  I.  Act  II.  Sc.  4. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  165 

wars  had  pillaged  abroad,  now  pillaged  each  other ;  and  as  Eng- 
land was  neither  big  nor  rich  enough  to  satisfy  the  greed  of  all  of 
them,  the  struggle  gradually  became  a  war  of  mutual  extermina- 
tion. It  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  sectional  war.  Eastern  England, 
then  the  wealthiest  and  most  progressive  part  of  the  country,  had 
strongly  supported  Wycliffe  in  his  reforms.  It  now  espoused  the 
side  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  who  was  believed  to  be  friendly  to 
religious  liberty,  while  the  western  counties  fought  for  the  cause 
of  Lancaster  and  the  church.1 

354.  The  First  Battles. — We  have  already  seen  that  the  first 
blood  was  shed  at  St.  Albans  in  1455,  where  the  Yorkists,  after  half 
an  hour's  fighting,  gained  a  complete  victory.    A  similar  result  fol- 
lowed at  Bloreheath,  Staffordshire.     In  a  third  battle,  at  North- 
ampton,2 the  Yorkists  were  again  successful.     Henry  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  Queen  Margaret  fled  with  the  young  Prince  Edward 
to  Scotland.     Richard   now  demanded  the  crown.      Henry  an- 
swered  with  unexpected  spirit :  "  My  father  was  king,  his  father 
also  was  king.     I  have  worn  the  crown  forty  years  from  my  cradle  ; 
you  have  all  sworn  fealty  to  me  as  your  sovereign,  and  your  fathers 
did  the  like  to  my  fathers.     How,  then,  can  my  claim  be  dis- 
puted?"   Finally,  after  a  long  dispute,  a  compromise  was  effected. 
Henry  agreed  that  if  he  were  left  m  peaceable  possession  of  the 
throne  during  his  life,  Richard  or  his  heirs  should  succeed  him. 

355.  Battles  of  Wakefield  and  Towton.  —  But  Queen  Margaret 
refused  to  see  her  son,  Prince  Edward,  thus  tamely  set  aside.    She 
raised  an  army  and  attacked  the  Yorkists.     Richard,  whose  forces 
were  inferior  to  hers,  had  entrenched  himself  in  his  castle.3    Day 
after  day  Margaret  went  up  under  the  walls  and  dared  him  to 
come  out.     At  length,  stung  by  her  taunts,  the  duke  sallied  from 
his  stronghold,  and  the  battle  of  Wakefield  was  fought.     Margaret 

1  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  persecution  of  Wycliffe 's  followers  began  under 
Henry  IV.,  the  first  Lancastrian  king.     See  Paragraph  No.  335. 
a  Northampton,  Northamptonshire. 
3  Sandal  Castle,  near  Wakefield,  Yorkshire.     Towton,  also  in  Yorkshire. 


166  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

was  victorious.  Richard  was  slain,  and  the  queen,  in  mockery  of 
his  claims  to  sovereignty,  cut  off  his  head,  decked  it  with  a  paper 
crown,  and  set  it  up  over  the  chief  gate  of  the  city  of  York.  For- 
tune now  changed.  The  next  year  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  at  Towton.1  The  light  spring  snow  was  crim- 
soned with  the  blood  of  thirty  thousand  slain,  and  the  way  strewn 
with  corpses  for  ten  miles  up  to  the  walls  of  York.  The  Earl  of 
Warwick,  henceforth  popularly  known  as  "  the  king-maker,"  now 
placed  Edward,  eldest  son  of  the  late  Duke  of  York,  on  the  throne, 
with  the  title  of  Edward  IV.  Henry  and  Margaret  fled  to  Scot- 
land. The  new  government  summoned  them  to  appear,  and  as 
they  failed  to  answer,  proclaimed  them  traitors.  Four  years  later 
Henry  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  the  Tower  of  London.  He 
may  have  been  happier  there  than  battling  for  his  throne.  He 
was  not  born  to  reign,  but  rather,  as  Shakespeare  makes  him  say, 
to  lead  a  shepherd's  life,  watching  his  flocks,  until  the  peacefully 
flowing  years  should  — 

"Bring  white  hairs  unto  a  quiet  grave."2 

356.  Summary.  —  The  history  of  the  period  is  one  of  loss. 
The  brilliant  French  conquests  of  Henry  V.  slipped  from  the  nerve- 
less hands  of  his  son,  leaving  France  practically  independent.  The 
franchise  had  been  restricted,  and  the  House  of  Commons  now 
represented  property-holders  mainly.  Cade's  rebellion  was  the 
sign  of  political  discontent  and  the  forerunner  of  civil  war.  The 
contests  of  the  parties  of  the  Red  and  the  White  Roses  drenched 
England's  fair  fields  with  the  best  blood  of  her  own  sons.  The 
reign  ends  with  King  Henry  in  prison,  Queen  Margaret  and  the 
prince  fugitives,  and  the  Yorkist  Edward  IV.  placed  on  the  throne 
by  the  help  of  the  powerful  Earl  of  Warwick. 

1  For  battle-fields  of  the  Wars  of  Roses,  see  Map  No.  10,  p.  174. 

2  See  Henry's  soliloquy  on  the  field  of  Towton,  beginning, — 

"  O  God!  methinks  it  were  a  happy  life 
To  be  no  better  than  a  homely  swain." 

SHAKESPEARE,  Henry  £7,  Part  III.  Act  II.  Sc.  5. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  l6/ 

EDWARD  IV.  (House  of  York,  White  Rose).  —  1461-1483. 

357.  Continuation  of  the  War ;  Death  of  Henry ;  Tewkesbury. 

—  During  the  whole  of  Edward's  reign  the  war  went  on  with  vary- 
ing success,  but  unvarying  ferocity,  until  at  last  neither  side  would 
ask  or  give  quarter.  Some  years  after  the  accession  of  the  new 
sovereign  the  Earl  of  Warwick  quarrelled  with  him,  thrust  him 
down  from  the  throne,  and  restored  Henry.  But  a  few  months 
later,  at  the  battle  of  Barnet,  Warwick,  who  was  "  the  last  of  the 
great  barons,"  was  killed,  and  Henry,  who  had  been  led  back  to 
the  Tower 1  again,  died  one  of  those  "  conveniently  sudden  deaths  " 
which  were  then  so  common. 

The  heroic  Margaret,  however,  would  not  give  up  the  contest  in 
behalf  of  her  son's  claim  to  the  crown.  But  fate  was  against  her. 
A  few  weeks  after  the  battle  of  Barnet 2  her  army  was  utterly  de- 
feated at  Tewkesbury,  her  son  Edward  slain,  and  the  queen  herself 
taken  prisoner.  She  was  eventually  released  on  the  payment  of  a 
large  ransom,  and  returned  to  France,  where  she  died  broken- 
hearted in  her  native  Anjou,  prophesying  that  the  contest  would 
go  on  until  the  Red  Rose,  representing  her  party,  should  get  a  still 
deeper  dye  from  the  blood  of  her  enemies.3 

358.  The  Introduction  of  Printing. — But  an  event  was  at 
hand  of  greater  importance  than  any  question  of  crowns  or  parties, 
though  then  none  were  wise  enough  to  see  its  real  significance. 
William  Caxton,  a  London  merchant,  having  learned  the  new  art 
of  printing  in  Flanders,  now  returned  to  his  native  country  and  set 
up  a  small  press  within  the  precincts  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

There,  "  at  the  sign  of  the  red  pole,"  he  advertised  his  wares  as 
"  good  chepe."  He  was  not  only  printer,  but  translator  and  editor. 

1  The  Tower  of  London,  built  by  William  the  Conqueror  as  a  fortress  to  over- 
awe the  city,  became  later  both  a  royal  palace  and  a  prison  of  state.    It  is  now  used 
as  a  citadel,  armory,  and  depository  for  the  crown  jewels. 

2  Barnet :  about  eleven  miles  northwest  of  London,  Hertfordshire.   Tewkesbury  : 
near  Gloucester,  Gloucestershire. 

8  See  Scott's  Anne  of  Geierstein,  Chapter  XXX. 


l68  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Edward  gave  him  some  royal  patronage,  and  paid  liberally  for 
work  which  not  long  before  the  clergy  in  France  had  condemned 
as  a  black  art  emanating  from  the  devil,  and  which  many  of  the 
English  clergy  still  regarded  with  no  very  friendly  eye,  especially 
as  it  threatened  to  destroy  the  copying  trade,  of  which  the 
monks  had  well-nigh  a  monopoly.  The  first  printed  book  which 
Caxton  is  known  to  have  published  in  England  was  a  small  volume 
entitled  "The  Sayings  of  the  Philosophers  "  (I477).1  This  venture 
was  followed  in  due  time  by  Chaucer's  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  and 
whatever  other  poetry,  history,  or  classics  seemed  worthy  of  preser- 
vation ;  in  all  no  less  than  sixty-four  distinct  works.  Up  to  this 
time  a  book  of  any  kind  was  a  luxury,  laboriously  "  written  by  the 
few  for  the  few " ;  but  from  this  date  literature  of  all  sorts  was 
destined  to  multiply  and  fill  the  earth  with  many  leaves  and  some 
good  fruit. 

Caxton's  patrons  though  few,  were  choice,  and  when  one  of  them, 
the  Earl  of  Worcester,  was  beheaded  in  the  wars,  he  said  of  him, 
"  The  axe  did  then  cut  off  more  learning  than  was  left  in  all  the 
heads  of  the  surviving  lords."  Recently  a  memorial  window  has 
been  placed  in  St.  Margaret's  Church  within  the  Abbey  grounds,  as 
a  tribute  to  the  man  who,  while  England  was  red  with  slaughter, 
introduced  "  the  art  preservative  of  all  arts,"  and  preservative  of 
liberty  no  less.2 

359.  Edward's  Character. — The  king,  however,  cared  more 
for  his  pleasures  than  for  literature  or  the  welfare  of  the  nation. 

1 "  The  dictes  or  sayengis  of  the  philosophres,  enprynted  by  me  william  Cax- 
ton at  westmestre,  the  year  of  our  lord  MCCCCLxxvii." 

It  has  no  title-page,  but  ends  as  above.    A  copy  is  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum.    "The  Game  and  Play  of  the  Chess"  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
published  a  year  or  two  earlier,  but  as  the  book  has  neither  printer's  name,  place  of 
publication,  nor  date,  the  time  of  its  issue  remains  wholly  conjectural. 
2  "  Lord !  taught  by  Thee,  when  Caxton  bade 

His  silent  words  forever  speak ; 
A  grave  for  tyrants  then  was  made, 

Then  crack'd  the  chain  which  yet  shall  break." 

EBENEZER  EU.IOrr,  Hymn  for  the  Printer? 
Gathering  at  Sheffield,  f8jj. 


THE   SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  169 

His  chief  aim  was  to  beg,  borrow,  or  extort  money  to  waste  in 
dissipation.  The  loans  which  he  forced  his  subjects  to  grant,  and 
which  were  seldom,  if  ever,  repaid,  went  under  the  name  of  "  be- 
nevolences." But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  those  who  furnished  them 
were  in  no  very  benevolent  frame  of  mind  at  the  time.  Exception 
may  perhaps  be  made  of  the  rich  and  elderly  widow,  who  was  so 
pleased  with  the  king's  handsome  face  that  she  willingly  handed 
him  £20  (a  large  sum  in  those  days)  ;  and  when  the  jovial  monarch 
gallantly  kissed  her  out  of  gratitude  for  her  generosity,  she  at  once, 
like  a  true  and  loyal  subject,  doubled  the  donation.  Edward's 
course  of  life  was  not  conducive  to  length  of  days,  even  if  the 
times  had  favored  a  long  reign.  He  died  early,  leaving  a  son, 
Prince  Edward,  to  succeed  him. 

360.  Summary. — The  reign  was  marked  by  the  continuation 
of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  the  death  of  King  Henry  VI.  and  of  his 
son,  with  the  return  of  Queen  Margaret  to  France.      The  most 
important  event  was  the  introduction  of  the  printing-press  by 
William  Caxton. 

EDWARD  V.  (House  of  York,  White  Rose).  —  1483-1483. 

361.  Gloucester  appointed  Protector.  —  Prince  Edward,  heir 
to  the  throne,  was  a  lad  of  twelve.     He  was  placed  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  uncle,  Richard, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  had  been  appointed  Lord  Protector  of 
the  realm  until  the  boy  should  become  of  age.    Richard  protected 
his  young  nephew  as  a  wolf  would  a  lamb.     He  met  the  prince 
coming  up  to  London  from  Ludlow  Castle,  Shropshire,  attended 
by  his  half-brother  Sir  Richard  Grey,  and  his  uncle  Lord  Rivers. 
Under  the  pretext  that  Edward  would  be  safer  in  the  Tower  of 
London   than  at  Westminster   Palace,  Richard   sent  the  prince 
there,  and  soon  found  means  for  having  his  kinsmen  Grey  and 
Rivers  executed. 

362.  Murder  of  Lord  Hastings  and  the  Two  Princes.  — Rich- 
ard shortly  after  showed  his  object.     Lord  Hastings  was  one  of  the 


I/O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

council  who  had  voted  to  make  the  duke  Protector,  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  help  him  in  his  plot  to  seize  the  crown.  While  at  the 
council-table  in  the  Tower  Richard  suddenly  started  up  and  ac- 
cused Hastings  of  treason,  saying,  "  By  St.  Paul  I  will  not  to  dinner 
till  I  see  thy  head  off."  Hastings  was  dragged  out  of  the  room, 
and  without  either  trial  or  examination  was  beheaded  on  a  stick  of 
timber  on  the  Tower  green.  The  way  was  now  clear  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  duke's  purpose.  The  queen -mother 
(Elizabeth  Woodville,  widow  of  Edward  IV.)  took  her  younger 
son  and  his  sisters,  one  of  whom  was  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  of 
York,  and  fled  for  protection  to  the  sanctuary 1  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  where,  refusing  all  comfort,  "she  sat  alone,  low  on  the 
rushes."2  Finally,  Richard  half  persuaded  and  half  forced  the 
unhappy  woman  to  give  up  her  second  son  to  his  tender  care. 
With  bitter  weeping  and  dread  presentiments  of  evil  she  parted 
from  him,  saying,  "  Farewell,  mine  own  sweet  son  !  God  send  you 
good  keeping  !  Let  me  kiss  you  once  ere  you  go,  for  God  knoweth 
when  we  shall  kiss  together  again."  That  was  the  last  time  she 
saw  the  lad.  He  and  Edward,  his  elder  brother,  were  soon  after 
murdered  in  the  Tower,  and  Richard  rose  by  that  double  crime  to 
the  height  he  coveted. 

363-  Summary.  —  Edward's  nominal  reign  of  less  than  three 
months  must  be  regarded  simply  as  the  time  during  which  his 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  perfected  his  plot  for  seizing  the 
crown  by  the  successive  murders  of  Rivers,  Grey,  Hastings,  and 
the  two  young  princes. 

RICHARD  III.  (House  of  York,  White  Rose).  —  1483-1485. 

364.   Richard's  Accession;  he  promises  Financial  Reform. — 

Richard  used  the  preparations  which  had  been  made  for  the  mur- 
dered Prince  Edward's  coronation  for  his  own.  He  probably 
gained  over  an  influential  party  by  promises  of  financial  reform. 

1  Se»  Paragraph  No.  131. 

2  "  On  the  rushes  " :  on  the  stone  floor  covered  with  rushes. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  17! 

In  their  address  to  him  at  his  accession  Parliament  said,  "  Cer- 
tainly we  be  determined  rather  to  adventure  and  commit  us  to  the 
peril  of  our  lives  .  .  .  than  to  live  in  such  thraldom  and  bondage 
as  we  have  lived  long  time  heretofore,  oppressed  and  injured  by 
extortions  and  new  impositions,  against  the  laws  of  God  and  man, 
and  the  liberty,  old  policy  and  laws  of  this  realm,  wherein  every 
Englishman  is  inherited." ' 

365.  Richard's  Character.  — Several  attempts  have  been  made 
of  late  years  to  defend  the  king  against  the  odium  heaped  upon 
him  by  the  older  historians.    But  these  well-meant  efforts  to  prove 
him  less  black  than  tradition  painted  him,  are  perhaps  sufficiently 
answered  by  the  fact  that  his  memory  was  so  thoroughly  hated  by 
those  who  knew  him  best  that  no  one  of  the  age  when  he  lived 
thought  of  vindicating  his  character. 

We  must  then  believe,  until  it  is  clearly  proved  to  the  contrary, 
that  the  last  and  worst  of  the  Yorkist  kings  was  what  common  re- 
port and  Shakespeare  have  together  represented  him,  —  distorted 
in  figure,  and  with  ambition  so  unrestrained,  that  the  words  the 
poet  puts  into  his  mouth  may  have  been  really  his  :  —  9 

"Then,  since  the  heavens  have  shap'd  my  body  so, 
Let  hell  make  crookt  my  mind  to  answer  it."  2 

Personally  he  was  as  brave  as  he  was  cruel  and  unscrupulous. 
He  promoted  some  reforms.  He  abolished  "  benevolences,"  at 
least  for  a  time,  and  he  encouraged  Caxton  in  his  great  work. 

366.  Revolts  ;  Buckingham ;  Henry  Tudor.  —  During  his  short 
reign  of  two  years,  several  revolts  broke  out,  but  came  to  nothing. 
The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  who  had  helped  Richard  to  the  throne, 
turned  against  him  because  he  did  not  get  the  rewards  he  expected. 
He  headed  a  revolt ;  but  as  his  men  deserted  him,  he  fell  into  the 
king's  hands,  and  the  executioner  speedily  did  the  rest.     Finally  a 
more   formidable   enemy  arose.      Before   he   gained   the    crown 

1  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

2  Henry  VI.,  Part  III.  Act  V.  Sc.  6. 


1/2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Richard  had  cajoled  or  compelled  the  unfortunate  Anne  Neville, 
widow  of  that  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  VI.,  who  was  slam 
at  Tewkesbury,1  into  becoming  his  wife.  She  said  with  truth, 
"  Small  joy  have  I  in  being  England's  queen."  The  king  intended 
that  his  son  should  marry  Elizabeth  of  York,8  sister  to  the  two 
princes  he  had  murdered  in  the  Tower.  By  so  doing  he  would 
strengthen  his  position,  and  secure  the  succession  to  the  throne  to 
his  own  family.  But  Richard's  son  shortly  after  died,  and  the 
king,  having  mysteriously  got  rid  of  his  wife,  now  made  up  his 
mind  to  marry  Elizabeth  himself. 

The  princess,  however,  was  already  betrothed  to  Henry  Tudor, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  the  engagement  having  been  effected  during 
that  sad  winter  which  she  and  her  mother  spent  in  sanctuary  at 
Westminster  Abbey,  watched  by  Richard's  soldiers  to  prevent  their 
escape.  The  Earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  an  illegitimate  descendant 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  had  long  been  waiting  on  the  continent 
for  an  opportunity  to  invade  England  and  claim  the  crown.  Owing 
to  the  enmity  of  Edward  IV.  and  Richard  toward  him,  the  earl  had 
been,  as  he  himself  said,  "  either  a  fugitive  or  a  captive  since  he 
was  five  years  old."  He  now  determined  to  remain  so  no  longer. 
In  1485  he  landed  with  a  force  at  Milford  Haven,  in  Wales,  where 
he  felt  sure  of  a  welcome,  since  his  paternal  ancestors  were  Welsh.3 

Advancing  through  Shrewsbury,  he  met  Richard  on  Bosworth 
Field,  in  Leicestershire. 

367.  Battje  of  Bosworth  Field  (1485).— There  the  decisive 
battle  was  fought  between  the  great  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  357.  a  See  Paragraph  No.  362. 

8  Descent  of  Henry  Tudor.  Earl  of  Richmond. 

Henry  V.  (House  of  Lancaster)  married  Catharine  of  France,  who  after  his 

I  death  married  Owen  Tudor,  a  Welshman. 

Henry  VI.  | 

Edmund  Tudoi  (Earl  of  Richmond)  married 

Margaret  Beaufort,  a  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt, 

Duke  of  Lancaster  [she  was  granddaughter  of 

John,  Earl  of  Somerset,  see  p.  163]. 

Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond  (also 
called  Henry  of  Lancaster). 


THE   SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  1 73 

caster.  Richard  went  out  the  evening  before  to  look  over  the 
ground.  He  found  one  of  his  sentinels  slumbering  at  his  post. 
Drawing  his  sword,  he  stabbed  him  to  the  heart,  saying,  "  I  found 
him  asleep  and  I  leave  him  asleep."  Going  back  to  his  tent,  he 
passed  a  restless  night.  The  ghosts  of  all  his  murdered  victims 
seemed  to  pass  in  procession  before  him.  Such  a  sight  may  well, 
as  Shakespeare  says,  have  "struck  terror  to  the  soul  of  Richard."1 
At  sunrise  the  battle  began.  Before  the  attack,  Richard,  it  is 
said,  confessed  to  his  troops  the  murder  of  his  two  nephews,  but 
pleaded  that  he  had  atoned  for  the  crime  with  "  many  salt  tears 
and  long  penance."  It  is  probable  that  had  it  not  been  for 
the  treachery  of  some  of  his  adherents  the  king  would  have 
won  the  day.  When  he  saw  that  he  was  deserted  by  those  on 
whose  help  he  had  counted,  he  uttered  the  cry  of  "  treason  !  trea- 
son ! "  and  dashed  forward  into  the  thick  of  the  fight.  With  the 
fury  of  despair  he  hewed  his  way  into  the  very  presence  of  the 
earl,  and  killing  the  standard-bearer,  flung  the  Lancastrian  banner 
to  the  ground.  But  he  could  go  no  further.  Numbers  overpow- 
ered him,  and  he  fell.  During  the  battle  he  had  worn  his  crown. 
After  all  was  over,  it  was  found  hanging  on  a  hawthorn- bush2  and 
handed  to  the  victor,  who  placed  it  on  his  own  head.  The  army 
then  gathered  round  Henry  thus  crowned,  and  moved  by  one  im- 
pulse joined  in  the  exultant  hymn  of  the  Te  Deum.3  Thus  ended 
the  last  of  the  Plantagenet  line.  "  Whatever  their  faults  or  crimes, 
there  was  not  a  coward  among  them." 4 

368.  End  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses;  their  Effects. — With 
Bosworth  Field  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  ceased.  During  the  thirty 
years  they  had  continued,  fourteen  pitched  battles  had  been 
fought,  in  a  single  one  of  which  (Towton)  more  Englishmen  lost 

1  Shakespeare's  Richard  III.,  Act  V.  Sc.  3. 

2  An    ancient    stained-glass    window  in    Henry   VII.'s  Chapel  (Westminster 
Abbey)  commemorates  this  incident. 

8  "  Te  Deum  laudamus":  We  praise  Thee,  O  God.    A  Roman  Catholic  hymn  ol 
thanksgiving,  now  sung  in  English  in  the  Episcopal  and  other  churches. 
*  Stubbs'  Constitutional  History  of  England. 


174  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

their  lives  than  in  the  whole  course  of  the  wars  with  France  during 
the  preceding  forty  years.  In  all,  eighty  princes  of  the  blood 
royal  and  more  than  half  of  the  nobility  of  the  realm  perished. 

Of  those  who  escaped  death  by  the  sword,  many  died  on  the 
scaffold.  The  remnant  who  were  saved  had  hardly  a  better  fate. 
They  left  their  homes  only  to  suffer  in  foreign  lands.  A  writer  of 
that  day '  says :  "  I,  myself,  saw  the  Duke  of  Exeter,  the  king 
of  England's  brother-in-law,  walking  barefoot  in  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy's train,  and  begging  his  bread  from  door  to  door."  Every 
individual  of  two  families  of  the  great  houses  of  Somerset  and 
Warwick  fell  either  on  the  field  or  under  the  executioner's  axe. 
In  tracing  family  pedigrees  it  is  startling  to  see  how  often  the 
record  reads,  "killed  at  St.  Albans,"  "slain  at  Towton."  "be- 
headed after  the  battle  of  Wakefield,"  and  the  like.2 

When  the  contest  closed,  the  feudal  baronage  was  broken  up. 
In  a  majority  of  cases  the  estates  of  the  nobles  either  fell  to  the 
crown  for  lack  of  heirs,  or  they  were  fraudulently  seized  by  the 
king's  officers.  Thus  the  greater  part  of  the  wealthiest  and  most 
powerful  aristocracy  in  the  world  disappeared  so  completely  that 
they  ceased  to  have  either  a  local  habitation  or  a  name.  But  the 
elements  of  civil  discord  at  last  exhausted  themselves.  Bosworth 
was  a  turning-point  in  English  history.  When  the  sun  went  down, 
it  saw  the  termination  of  the  desperate  struggle  between  the  White 
Roses  of  York  and  the  Red  of  Lancaster ;  when  it  ushered  in  a 
new  day,  it  shone  also  on  a  new  king,  who  introduced  a  new  social 
and  political  period. 

369.  Summary.  —  The  importance  of  Richard's  reign  is  that 
it  marks  the  close  of  thirty  years  of  civil  war,  the  destruction  of 
the  predominating  influence  of  the  feudal  barons,  and  leaves  as 
the  central  figure  Henry  Tudor,  the  sovereign  who  now  ascended 
the  throne. 

1  See  the  Paston  Letters. 

2  Guest's  Lectures  on  English  History. 


No.   10. 


ENGLAND 

AND 

WALES 

1066-1485* 


&™?tr5"      ^RTHW  •'    °^ 

i,!  WAHWICK/  •  °RTHT!;i.-v.,n 


To  face  page  174. 

The  battle-fields  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  are  underlined:   thus,  Towton  (in  Yorkshire). 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  LANCASTRIAN  AND  YORKIST 
PERIOD  (1399-1485). 

I.  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV. 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART.  —  V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE.  —  VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

370.  Parliament  and  the  Royal  Succession.  —  The  period  be- 
gan with  the  parliamentary  recognition  of  the  claim  to  the  crown  of 
Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
fourth  son  of  Edward  III.     By  this  act  the  claim  of  Edmund  Mortimer, 
a  descendant  of  Edward  III.  by  his  third  son,  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence, 
was  deliberately  set  aside,  and  this  change  of  the  order  of  succession 
eventually  furnished  an  excuse  for  civil  war.1 

371.  Disfranchisement   of   Electors ;    Benevolences.  —  Under 
Henry  VI.  a  property  qualification  was  established  by  act  of  Parliament 
which  cut  off  all  persons  from  voting  for  county  members  of  the  House 
of  Commons  who  did  not  have  an  income  of  forty  shillings  (say  ,£40,  or 
$200,  in  modern  money)  from  freehold  land.    County  elections,  the  stat- 
ute said,  had  "  of  late  been  made  by  a  very  great,  outrageous,  and  exces- 
sive number  of  people  ...  of  which  the  most  part  were  people  of  small 
substance  and  of  no  value."     Later,  candidates  for  the  House  of  Com- 
mons from  the  counties  were  required  to  be  gentlemen  by  birth,  and  to 
have  an  income  of  not  less  than  £-20  (or  say  ,£400,  or  $2000,  in  modern 
money).     Though  the  tendency  of  such  laws  was  to  make  the  House  of 
Commons  represent  property-holders  rather  than  the  freemen  as  a  body, 

l  Before  the  accession  of  Henry  III.,  Parliament  made  choice  of  any  one  of  the 
king's  sons  whom  they  considered  best  fitted  to  rule.  After  that  time  it  was  under- 
stood that  the  king's  eldest  son  should  be  chosen  to  succeed  him ;  or  in  case  of  his 
death  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  the  eldest  son  of  the  eldest  son,  and  so  for- 
ward in  that  line.  The  action  taken  by  Parliament  in  favor  of  Henry  IV.  was  a 
departure  from  that  principle,  and  a  reassertion  of  its  ancient  right  to  choose  any 
descendant  of  the  royal  family  they  deemed  best.  See  genealogical  table,  Para- 
graph No.  309. 


1/6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

yet  no  apparent  change  seems  to  have  taken  place  in  the  class  of  county 
members  chosen. 

Eventually,  however,  these  and  other  interferences  with  free  elections 
caused  the  rebellion  of  Jack  Cade,  in  which  the  insurgents  demanded 
the  right  to  choose  such  representatives  as  they  saw  fit.  But  the  move- 
ment appears  to  have  had  no  practical  result.  During  the  civil  war  which 
ensued,  the  king  (Edward  IV.)  compelled  wealthy  subjects  to  lend  him 
large  sums  (seldom,  if  ever,  repaid)  called  "  benevolences."  Richard 
III.  abolished  this  obnoxious  system,  but  afterward  revived  it,  and  it 
became  conspicuously  hateful  under  his  successor  in  the  next  period. 

Another  great  grievance  was  Purveyance.  By  it  the  king's  purveyors 
had  the  right  to  seize  provisions  and  means  of  transportation  for  the 
king  and  his  hundreds  of  attendants  whenever  they  journeyed  through 
the  country  on  a  "royal  progress."  The  price  offered  by  the  purveyors 
was  always  much  below  the  real  value  of  what  was  taken,  and  fre- 
quently even  that  was  not  paid.  Purveyance,  which  had  existed  from 
the  earliest  times,  was  not  finally  abolished  until  1660. 

RELIGION. 

372.  Suppression  of  Heresy.  —  Under  Henry  IV.  the  first  act  was 
passed  by  lords  and  clergy  (without  assent  of  the  House  of  Commons), 
punishing  heretics,  by  burning  at  the  stake,  and  the  first  martyr  suffered 
in  that  reign.     Later,  the  Lollards,  or  followers  of  WyclifFe,  who  appear 
in  many  cases  to  have  been  socialists  as  well  as  religious  reformers, 
were  punished  by  imprisonment,  and  occasionally  with  death.      The 
whole  number  of  martyrs,  however,  was  but  small. 

MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

373.  Armor  and  Arms.  —  The  armor  of  the  period  was  made  of 
steel  plate,  fitting  and  completely  covering  the  body.      It  was  often 
inlaid  with  gold  and  elegantly  ornamented.      Firearms   had  not  yet 
superseded  the  old  weapons.     Cannon  were   in  use,  and  also  clumsy 
hand-guns  fired  with  a  match.    The  long-bow  continued  to  be  the  chief 
arm  of  the  foot-soldiers,  and  was  used  with  great  dexterity  and  fatal 
effect.     Targets  were  set  up  by  law  in  every  parish,  and  the  yeomen 
were  required  to  practise  at  contests  in  archery  frequently.     The  prin- 
cipal wars  wire  the  civil  wars  and  those  with  France. 


THE    SELF-DESTRUCTION    OF    FEUDALISM.  1/7 


LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART. 

374.  Introduction  of  Printing ;  Books.  — The  art  of  printing  was 
introduced  into  England  about  1471  by  Caxton,  a  London  merchant, 
Up  to  that  time  all  books  had  been  written  on  either  parchment  or 
paper,  at  an  average    rate  of  about  fifty  cents  per  page  in  modern 
money.     The  age  was  not  favorable  to  literature,  and  produced  no  great 
writers.     But  Caxton  edited  and  published  a  large  number  of  works, 
many  of  which   he  translated  from  the  French  and  Latin.     The  two 
books  which  throw  most  light  on  the  history  of  the  times  are  the  Sir 
John  Paston  Letters  (1424-1506),  and  a  work  by  Chief  Justice  For- 
tescue,  on  government,  intended  for  the  use  of  Prince  Edward  (slain 
at   Tewkesbury) .       The    latter  is  remarkable  for  its  bold  declaration 
that  the  king  "  has  the  delegation  of  power  from  the  people,  and  he 
has  no  just  claims  to  any  other  power  than  this."    The  chief  justice  also 
praises  the  courage  of  his  countrymen,  and  declares  with  honest  pride 
that  "more  Englishmen  are  hanged  in  England  in  one  year  for  rob- 
bery and  manslaughter  than  are  hanged  in  France  in  seven  years." 

375.  Education.  —  Henry  VI.  took  a  deep  interest  in  education, 
and  founded  the  great  public  school  of  Eton,  which  ranks  next  in  age  to 
that  of  Winchester.     The  money  for  its  endowment  was  obtained  by 
the  appropriation  of  the  revenues  of  alien  or  foreign  monasteries  which 
had  been  erected  in  England,  and  which  were  confiscated  by  Henry  V. 
The  king  watched  the  progress  of  the  building  from  the  windows  of 
Windsor  Castle,  and  to  supplement  the  course  of  education  to  be  given 
there,  he  furthermore  erected   and   endowed  the  magnificent  King's 
College,  Cambridge. 

376.  Architecture.  —  A  new  development  of  Gothic  architecture 
occurred  during  this  period,  the  Decorated  giving  place  to  the  Perpen- 
dicular.    The  latter  derived  its  name  from  the  perpendicular  divisions 
of  the  lights  in  the  arches  of  the  windows.     It  marks  the  final  period  of 
the  Gothic  or  Pointed  style,  and  is  noted  for  the  exquisite  carved  work 
of  its  ceilings.    King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor,  and  Henry  VII.'s  Chapel  (built  in  the  next  reign),  connected 
with  Westminster  Abbey,  are  among  the  most  celebrated  examples  of 
this  style  of  architecture,  which  is  peculiar  to  England. 


1/8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

The  mansions  of  the  nobility  at  this  period  exhibited  great  elegance. 
Crosby  Hall,  London,  at  one  time  the  residence  of  Richard  III.,  and 
still  standing,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  "  Inns,"  as  they  were  called, 
of  the  great  families  and  wealthy  knights. 

GENERAL   INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 

377.  Agriculture  and  Trade.  —  Notwithstanding  the  civil  wars  oi 
the   Roses,  agriculture  was  prosperous,  and  foreign  trade  largely  in- 
creased.    The  latter  was  well  represented  by  Sir  Richard  Whittington, 
thrice  mayor  of  London,  who,  according  to  tradition,  lent  Henry  V. 
large  sums  of  money,  and  then  at  an  entertainment  which  he  gave  to 
the  king  and  queen  in  his  city  mansion,  generously  cancelled  the  debt 
by  throwing  the  bonds  into  the  open  sandal-wood  fire. 

Goldsmiths  from  Lombardy  had  now  settled  in  London  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  give  the  name  of  Lombard  Street  to  the  quarter  they  occu- 
pied. They  succeeded  the  Jews  in  the  business  of  money-lending  and 
banking,  and  Lombard  Street  still  remains  famous  for  its  bankers  and 
brokers. 

MODES  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

378.  Dress.  —  Great  sums  were  spent  on  dress  by  both  sexes,  and 
the  courtiers'  doublets,  or  jackets,  were  of  the  most  costly  silks  and 
velvets,  elaborately  puffed  and  slashed.     During  the  latter  part  of  the 
period  the  pointed  shoes,  which  had  formerly  been  of  prodigious  length, 
suddenly  began  to  grow  broad,  with  such  rapidity  that  Parliament  passed 
a  law  limiting  the  width  of  the  toes  to  six  inches..    At  the  same  time 
.the  court  ladies  adopted  the  fashion  of  wearing  horns  as  huge  in  pro- 
portion as  the  noblemen's  shoes.     The  government  tried  legislating  them 
down,  and  the  clergy  fulminated  a  solemn  curse  against  them ;    but 
fashion  was  more  powerful  than  church  and  Parliament  combined,  and 
horns  and  hoofs  came  out  triumphant 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  179 


VIII. 

"  One  half  her  soil  has  walked  the  rest 
In  heroes,  martyrs,  poets,  sages." 


O.  W.  HOLMES. 


POLITICAL  REACTION.  —  ABSOLUTISM    OF  THE   CROWN, 

—  THE  ENGLISH   REFORMATION   AND 

THE  NEW  LEARNING. 

CROWN  or  POPE? 

HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. —  1485-1603. 

Henry  VII.,  1485-1509.  Edward  VI.,  1547-1553. 

Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547.  Mary,  1553-1558. 

Elizabeth,  1558-1603. 

379.  Union  of  the  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York.  —  Before 
leaving  the  continent,  Henry  Tudor  had  promised  the  Yorkist 
party  that  he  would  marry  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  sister  to  the  young  princes  murdered  by  Richard  III. 
Such  a  marriage  would  unite  the  rival  houses  of  Lancaster  and 
York,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war.  A  few  months  after 
the  new  king's  accession  the  wedding  was  duly  celebrated,  and 
in  the  beautiful  east  window  of  stained  glass  in  Henry  VII. 's 
Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey,  the  Roses  are  seen  joined ;  so  that, 
as  the  quaint  verse  of  that  day  says :  — 

"  Both  roses  flourish  —  red  and  white  — 
In  love  and  sisterly  delight ; 
The  two  that  were  at  strife  are  blended, 
And  all  old  troubles  now  are  ended." 


ISO  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Peace  came  from  the  union,  but  it  was  peace  interrupted  by  in- 
surrections.1 

380.   Condition  of  the  Country ;    Power  of  the  Crown.  — 

Henry,  it  is  said,  had  his  claim  to  the  throne  printed  by  Caxton, 
and  distributed  broadcast  over  the  country.  It  was  the  first  polit- 
ical appeal  to  the  people  made  through  the  press,  and  was  a  sign 
of  the  new  period  upon  which  English  history  had  entered.  Since 
Caxton  began  his  work,  the  kingdom  had  undergone  a  most  mo- 
mentous change.  The  great  nobles,  like  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
were,  with  few  exceptions,  dead,  their  estates  confiscated,  their 
thousands  of  followers  either  buried  on  the  battle-field  or  dis- 
persed throughout  the  land.  The  small  number  of  titled  families 
remaining  was  no  longer  to  be  feared.  The  nation  itself,  though 
it  had  taken  comparatively  little  part  in  the  war,  was  weary  of 
bloodshed,  and  ready  for  peace  on  any  terms. 

The  accession  of  the  house  of  Tudor  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
long  period  of  well-nigh  absolute  royal  power.     The  nobility  were 

i  ORIGIN  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 


I 

2 

Edward  III. 
34                                                5 

Edward, 
(the  Black 
Prince) 

Richard  1  1 

William, 
no  issue. 

Lionel,  Duke    John  of  Gaunt,              Edmund,  Duke  of  York, 
of  Clarence,    Duke  of  Lan-                                | 

from  whom            caster.                    | 
descended  in                 |                 Edward,  Duke        Richard,  Earl  of 
a  direct  line  in        Henry  IV.        of  York,  no  is-     Cambridge,  married 
the  fourth  gen-                                           sue.                  Anne  Mortimer, 
eration  *Rich-                                                              great-granddaughter 
ard,  Duke                                                               of  Lionel,  Duke  of 
of  York.      Henry  V.  (Catharine,  his  widow,    Clarence;  their  son 
|                           |                       married             was  Richard, 

Edward  IV. 

1 

1   Henry  VI.      Owen  Tudor,     Duke  of  York. 

Richard  III.            a  Welsh  gentleman)  . 

KdwardV.       fRichard,       Elizabeth  mond,  m.  Margaret  Beaufort^  a 

DukeofYork.  of  York,  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
m.  Henry  VII.  °f  Lancaster.  See  pp.  172  and  163. 
(of  Lancaster). 

Henry  (Tudor)  VII.  (formerly 

Earl  of  Richmond),  m.   Elizabeth 

of  York,  thus  uniting  the  Houses  of 

Lancaster  (Red  Rose)  and  York 

(White  Rose)  in  the  new  Royal 

House  of  Tudor. 

*  Inherited  the  title  Duke  of  York  from  his  uncle  Edward.     See  No.  5. 
f  The  princes  murdered  by  Richard  ill. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  l8l 

• 

too  weak  to  place  any  check  on  the  king ;  the  clergy,  who  had  not 
recovered  from  their  dread  of  Lollardism  and  its  attacks  on  their 
wealth  and  influence,  were  anxious  for  a  strong  conservative  gov- 
ernment such  as  Henry  promised ;  as  for  the  commons,  they  had 
no  clear  united  policy,  and  though  the  first  Parliament  put  certain 
restraints  on  the  crown,  yet  they  were  never  really  enforced.1  The 
truth  is,  that  the  new  king  was  both  too  prudent  and  too  crafty  to 
give  them  an  opportunity.  By  avoiding  foreign  wars  he  dispensed 
with  the  necessity  of  summoning  frequent  parliaments,  and  also 
with  demands  for  large  sums  of  money.  By  thus  ruling  alone  for 
a  large  part  of  the  time,  Henry  got  the  management  of  affairs  into 
his  own  hands,  and  transmitted  the  power  to  those  who  came  after 
him.  In  this  way  the  Tudors  with  their  successors,  the  Stuarts, 
built  up  that  system  of  "  personal  sovereignty  "  which  continued 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  until  the  outbreak  of  a  new  civil  war 
brought  it  to  an  end  forever. 

381.  Growth  of  a  Stronger  Feeling  of  Nationality.  —  It  would 
be  an  error,  however,  to  consider  this  absolutism  of  the  crown  as 
an  unmitigated  evil.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  in  one  important 
direction  an  advantage.  There  are  times  when  the  great  need  of 
a  people  is  not  more  individual  liberty,  but  greater  national  unity. 
Spain  and  France  were  two  countries  consisting  of  a  collection  of 
petty  feudal  states,  whose  nobility  were  always  trying  to  steal  each 
other's  possessions  and  ,cut  each  other's  throats,  until  the  rise  in 
each  of  a  royal  despotism  forced  the  turbulent  barons  to  make 
peace,  to  obey  a  common  central  law,  and  by  this  means  both 
realms  ultimately  developed  into  great  and  powerful  kingdoms. 
When  the  Tudors  came  to  the  throne,  England  was  still  full  of 

1  At  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.,  Parliament  imposed  the  following  checks  on 
the  power  of  the  king :  — 

1.  No  new  tax  to  be  levied  without  consent  of  Parliament. 

2.  No  new  law  to  be  made  without  the  same  consent. 

3.  No  committal  to  prison  without  a  warrant  specifying  the  offence,  and  the 
trial  to  be  speedy. 

4.  Criminal  charges  and  questions  of  fact  in  civil  cases  to  be  decided  by  jury. 

5.  The  king's  officers  to  be  held  responsible  to  the  nation. 


1 82  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  rankling  hate  engendered  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Held 
down  by  the  heavy  hand  of  Henry  VII.,  and  by  the  still  heavier 
one  of  his  son,  the  country  learned  the  same  salutary  lesson  of 
growth  under  repression  which  had  benefited  Spain  and  France. 
Henceforth  Englishmen  of  all  classes,  instead  of  boasting  that  they 
belonged  to  the  Yorkist  or  the  Lancastrian  faction,  came  to  pride 
themselves  on  their  loyalty  to  crown  and  country,  and  their  readi- 
ness to  draw  their  swords  to  defend  both. 

382.  Henry's  Methods  of  raising  Money ;  the  Court  of  Star- 
Chamber.  —  Henry's  reign  was  in  the  interest  of  the  middle 
classes,  —  the  farmers,  tradesmen,  and  mechanics.  His  policy 
was  to  avoid  heavy  taxation,  to  exempt  the  poor  from  the  bur- 
dens of  state,  and  so  ingratiate  himself  with  a  large  body  of  the 
people.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  he  revived  "  benevolences," 
and  by  a  device  suggested  by  his  chief  minister,  Cardinal  Morton, 
and  hence  known  and  dreaded  as  '*  Morton's  Fork,"  he  extorted 
large  sums  from  the  rich  and  well-to-do.1  The  cardinal's  agents 
made  it  their  business  to  learn  every  man's  income,  and  visit  him 
accordingly.  If,  for  instance,  a  person  lived  handsomely,  the  car- 
dinal would  insist  on  a  correspondingly  liberal  gift ;  if,  however, 
a  citizen  lived  very  plainly,  the  king's  minister  insisted  none  the 
less,  telling  the  unfortunate  man  that  by  his  economy  he  must 
surely  have  accumulated  enough  to  bestow  the  required  "  benevo- 
lence." 2  Thus  on  one  prong  or  the  other  of  his  terrible  "  fork  " 
the  shrewd  cardinal  impaled  his  writhing  victims,  and  speedily 
filled  the  royal  treasury  as  it  had  never  been  filled  before.3 

1  Those  whose  income  from  land  was  less  than  £2,  or  whose  movable  property 
did  not  exceed  ^15  (say  $150  and  $1125  now),  were  exempt.    The  lowest  rate  of 
assessment  for  the  "  benevolences  "  was  fixed  at  twenty  pence  on  the  pound  on  land, 
and  half  that  rate  on  other  property. 

2  Richard  Reed,  a  London  alderman, refused  to  contribute  a  "  benevolence."   He 
was  sent  to  serve  as  a  soldier  in  the  Scotch  wars  at  his  own  expense,  and  the  gen- 
eral received  government  orders  to  "  use  him  in  all  things  according  to  sharp  mili- 
tary discipline."    The  effect  was  such  that  few  after  that  ventured  to  deny  the  king 
what  he  asked. 

8  Henry  is  said  to  have  accumulated  a  fortune  of  nearly  two  millions  sterling ; 
an  amount  which  would  perhaps  represent  upwards  of  $150,000,000  now. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  183 

But  Henry  had  other  methods  for  raising  money.  He  sold  offi- 
ces in  church  and  state,  and  took  bribes  for  pardoning  rebels. 
When  he  summoned  a  parliament  he  obtained  grants  for  putting 
down  some  real  or  pretended  insurrection,  or  to  defray  the  expen- 
ses of  a  threatened  attack  from  abroad,  and  then  quietly  pocketed 
the  appropriation,  —  a  device  not  altogether  unknown  to  modern 
government  officials.  A  third  and  last  method  for  getting  funds 
was  invented  in  Henry's  behalf  by  two  lawyers,  Empson  and 
Dudley,  who  were  so  rapacious  and  cut  so  close  that  they  were 
commonly  known  as  "  the  king's  skin-shearers."  They  went  about 
the  country  enforcing  old  and  forgotten  laws,  by  which  they  reaped 
a  rich  harvest.  Their  chief  instrument  for  gain,  however,  was  a 
revival  of  the  Statute  of  Liveries,  which  imposed  enormous  fines 
on  those  noblemen  who  dared  to  equip  their  followers  in  military 
garb,  or  designate  them  by  a  badge  equivalent  to  it,  as  had  been 
their  custom  during  the  civil  wars.1 

In  order  to  thoroughly  enforce  the  Statute  of  Liveries,  Henry  re- 
organized the  Court  of  Star-Chamber,  so  called  from  the  starred 
ceiling  where  the  tribunal  met.  This  court  had  originally  for  its 
object  the  punishment  of  such  crimes  committed  by  the  great 
families,  or  their  adherents,  as  the  ordinary  law  courts  could  not, 
or  through  intimidation  dared  not,  deal  with.  It  had  no  power  to 
inflict  death,  but  might  impose  long  terms  of  imprisonment  and 
ruinous  fines,  It,  too,  first  made  use  of  torture  in  England  to 
extort  confessions  of  guilt. 

Henry  seems  to  have  enforced  the  law  of  Livery  against  friend 
and  foe  alike.  Said  the  king  to  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  as  he  left  his 
castle,  where  a  large  number  of  retainers  in  uniform  were  drawn 
up  to  do  him  honor,  "  My  Lord,  I  thank  you  for  your  entertain- 
ment, but  my  attorney  must  speak  to  you."  The  attorney,  who 
was  the  notorious  Empson,  brought  suit  in  the  Star-Chamber 
against  the  earl,  who  was  fined  15,000  marks,  or  something  like 
$750,000,  for  the  incautious  display  he  had  made. 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  348. 


184  LEADING    FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

383.  The  Introduction  of  Artillery  strengthens  the  Power  of 
the  King.  — -It  was  easier  for  Henry  to  pursue  this  arbitrary  course 
because  the  introduction  of  artillery  had  changed  the  art  of  war. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  call  of  a  great  baron  had,  as 
Macaulay  says,  been  sufficient  to  raise  a  formidable  revolt.    Coun- 
trymen and  followers  took  down  their  tough  yew  long-bows  from 
the  chimney-corner,  knights  buckled  on  their  steel  armor,  mounted 
their  horses,  and  in  a  few  days  an  army  threatened  the  throne, 
which  had  no  troops  save  those  furnished  by  loyal  subjects. 

But  now  that  men  had  digged  "  villanous  saltpetre  out  of  the 
bowels  of  the  harmless  earth  "  to  manufacture  powder,  and  that 
others  had  invented  cannon,  "those  devilish  iron  engines,"  as  the 
poet  Spenser  called  them,  "  ordained  to  kill,"  all  was  different. 
Without  artillery,  the  old  feudal  army,  with  its  bows,  swords,  and 
battle-axes,  could  do  little  against  a  king  like  Henry  who  had  it. 
For  this  reason,  the  whole  kingdom  lay  at  his  mercy ;  and  though 
the  nobles  and  the  rich  might  groan,  they  saw  that  it  was  useless  to 
fight. 

384.  The  Pretenders  Symnel  and  Warbeck.  —  During  Henry's 
reign,  two  pretenders  laid  claim  to  the  crown :   Lambert  Symnel, 
who  represented  himself  to  be  Edward  Plantagenet,  nephew  ot 
the  late  king;    and  Perkin  Warbeck,  who  asserted  that  he  was 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  generally  and  rightly  supposed  to  have 
been  murdered  in  the  Tower  by  his  uncle,  Richard  III.     Symnel's 
attempt  was  easily  suppressed,  and  he  commuted  his  claim  to  the 
crown  for  the  position  of  scullion  in  the  king's  kitchen.     Warbeck 
kept  the  kingdom .  in  a  turmoil  for  more  than  five  years,  during 
which  time  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  adherents  were  executed, 
and  their  bodies  exposed  on  gibbets  along  the  South  shore  to  deter 
their  master's  French  supporters  from  landing.    At  length  Warbeck 
was  captured,  imprisoned,  and  finally  hanged  at  Tyburn. 

385.  Henry's  Politic  Marriages.  —  Henry  accomplished  more 
by  the  marriages  of  his  children  and  by  diplomacy  than  other  mon- 
archs  had  by  their  wars.     He  gave  his  daughter  Margaret  to  King 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  [85 

James  IV.  of  Scotland,  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  He  married  his  eldest  son,  Prince  Arthur,  to 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which 
he  secured  a  very  large  marriage  portion  for  the  prince,  and  what 
was  of  equal  importance,  the  alliance  of  Spain  against  France. 
Arthur  died  soon  afterwards,  and  the  king  got  a  dispensation  from 
the  Pope,  granting  him  permission  to  marry  his  younger  son  Henry 
to  Arthur's  widow.  It  was  this  prince  who  eventually  became  king 
of  England,  with  the  title  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  we  shall  hereafter 
see  that  this  marriage  was  destined  by  its  results  to  change  the 
whole  course  of  the  country's  history. 

386.  The  World   as  known  at  Henry's  Accession.  —  The 

king  also  took  some  small  part  in  certain  other  events,  which 
seemed  to  him,  at  the  time,  of  less  consequence  than  these  matri- 
monial alliances,  but  which  history  has  regarded  in  a  different  light 
from  that  in  which  the  cunning  and  cautious  monarch  considered 
them.  A  glance  at  the  map l  will  show  how  different  our  world  is 
from  that  with  which  the  English  of  Henry's  time  were  acquainted. 
Then,  the  earth  was  not  supposed  to  be  a  globe,  but  simply  a  flat 
body  surrounded  by  the  ocean.  The  only  countries  of  which  any- 
thing was  certainly  known,  with  the  exception  of  Europe,  were 
parts  of  Western  Asia,  together  with  a  small  strip  of  the  northern 
and  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  knowledge  which  had  once 
existed  of  India,  China,  and  Japan  appears  to  have  died  out  in 
great  measure  with  the  travellers  and  merchants  of  earlier  times 
who  had  brought  it.  The  land  farthest  west  of  which  anything  was 
then  known  was  Iceland. 

387.  First  Voyages  of  Exploration ;  the  Cabots.  — About  the 
time  of  Henry's  accession  a  new  spirit  of  exploration  sprang  up. 
The  Portuguese  had  coasted  along  Africa  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  and  there  established  trading-posts.     Stimulated  by  what 
they  had  done,  Columbus,  who  believed  the  earth  to  be  round, 

l  See  Map  No.  n,  page  186. 


1 86  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

determined  to  sail  westward  in  the  hope  of  reaching  the  Indies. 
In  1492  he  made  his  first  voyage,  and  discovered  one  of  the 
West  India  Islands. 

Five  years  later,  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  residing  in  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, with  his  son  Sebastian,  who  was  probably  born  there,  per- 
suaded the  king  to  aid  them  in  a  similar  undertaking.  On  a 
map  drawn  by  the  father  after  his  return  we  read  the  following 
lines  :  "In  the  year  of  our  Lord  1497,  John  Cabot  and  his  son 
Sebastian  discovered  that  country  which  no  one  before  his  time 
had  ventured  to  approach,  on  the  24th  June,  about  5  o'clock  in 
the  morning."  That  entry  records  the  discovery  of  Newfoundland, 
which  led  a  few  days  later  to  that  of  the  mainland  of  North  Amer- 
ica, which  was  thus  first  seen  by  the  Cabots. 

As  an  offset  to  that  record  we  have  the  following,  taken  from  the 
king's  private  account-book:  "  10.  Aug.  1497,  To  him  that  found 
the  new  isle  £10." 

Such  was  the  humble  beginning  of  a  series  of  explorations  which 
gave  England  possession  of  the  largest  part  of  the  North  American 
continent. 

388.   Henry  VII.'s  Reign  the  Beginning  of  a  New  Epoch. — 

A  few  years  after  Cabot's  return  Henry  laid  the  corner-stone  of 
that  ''solemn  and  sumptuous  chapel"  which  bears  his  own  name, 
and  which  joins  Westminster  Abbey  on  the  east.  There  he  gave 
orders  that  his  tomb  should  be  erected,  and  that  prayers  should  be 
said  over  it  "as  long  as  the  world  lasted."  Emerson  remarks1 
that  when  the  visitor  to  the  Abbey  mounts  the  flight  of  twelve 
ulack  marble  steps  which  lead  from  it  to  the  edifice  where  Henry 
lies  buried,  he  passes  from  the  mediaeval  to  the  beginning  of  the 
modern  age  —  a  change  which  the  architecture  itself  distinctly 
marks.  The  true  significance  of  Henry's  reign  is,  that  it,  in  like 
manner,  stands  for  a  new  epoch,  new  in  modes  of  government,  in 
law,  in  geographical  discovery,  in  letters,  art,  and  religion. 

The  century  just  closing  was  indeed  one  of  the  most  remarkable 

l  English  Traits. 


No.  11. 

THE   WORLD   AS    KNOWN    IN    1497  — REIGN    OF   HENRY  VII. 


Light  arrows  show  voyages  south  made  up  to  1492;    (light  track, 

Da  Gama's  voyage,  1497). 

Dark  arrows,  voyages  of  Columbus  and  Cabot. 
White  crosses,  countries  of  which  something  was  known  before 

1492. 
White  area,  including  western  coast  of  Africa,  the  world  as  known 

shortly  before  the  sailing  of  Columbus. 


To  face  page   186. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  l8/ 

in  history,  not  only  in  what  it  had  actually  accomplished,  but  still 
more  in  the  seed  it  was  sowing  for  the  future.  The  artist  Kaulbach, 
in  his  fresco  entitled  "  The  Age  of  the  Reformation,"  l  has  summed 
up  all  that  it  was,  and  all  that  it  was  destined  to  become  in  its  full 
development.  Therein  we  see  it  as  the  period  which  witnessed 
the  introduction  of  firearms,  and  the  consequent  overthrow  of 
feudal  warfare  and  feudal  institutions  ;  the  growth  of  the  power  of 
royalty  and  of  nationality  through  royalty  ;  the  sailing  of  Columbus 
and  of  Cabot ;  the  revival  of  classical  learning ;  the  publication  of 
the  first  printed  book  ;  and  finally,  the  birth  of  that  monk,  Martin 
Luther,  who  was  to  emancipate  the  human  mind  from  its  long 
bondage  to  unmeaning  tradition  and  arbitrary  authority. 

389.  Summary.  —  Looking  back,  we  find  that  with  Henry  the 
absolutism  of  the  crown  or  "personal  monarchy"  began  in  Eng- 
land.    Yet  through  its  repressive  power  the  country  gained  a  pro- 
longed peace,  and,  despite  "  benevolences  "  and  other  exactions, 
it  grew  into  stronger  national  unity. 

Simultaneously  with  this  increase  of  royal  authority  came  the 
discovery  of  a  new  world,  in  which  England  was  to  have  the  chief 
part.  A  century  will  elapse  before  those  discoveries  bear  fruit. 
After  that,  our  attention  will  no  longer  be  confined  to  the  British 
Islands,  but  will  be  fixed  as  well  on  that  western  continent  where 
English  enterprise  and  English  love  of  liberty  are  destined  to  find 
a  new  and  broader  field  of  activity. 

HENRY  VIII.  — 1509-1547. 

390.  Henry's  Advantages.  —  Henry  was  not  quite   eighteen 
when  he  came  to  the  throne.     The  country  was  at  peace,  was 
fairly  prosperous,  and  the  young  king  had  everything  in  his  favor. 
He  was  handsome,  well-educated,  and  fond  of  athletic  sports.    His 
frank  disposition  won  friends  everywhere,  and  he  had  inherited 

1  Kaulbach's  (Kowl'h&k)  Age  of  the  Reformation  :  one  of  a  historical  series  of 
colossal  wall  paintings  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 


1 88  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

from  his  father  the  largest  private  fortune  that  had  ever  descended 
to  an  English  sovereign.  Intellectually,  he  was  in  hearty  sympathy 
with  the  revival  of  learning,  then  in  progress  both  on  the  continent 
and  in  England. 

391.  The  New  Learning;  Colet,  Erasmus,  More.  —  During 
the  greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  chief  object  of  education 
was  to  make  men  monks,  and  originally  the  schools  established  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  were  exclusively  for  that  purpose.  In  their 
day  they  did  excellent  work ;  but  a  time  came  when  men  ceased 
to  found  monasteries,  and  began  to  erect  colleges  and  hospitals 
instead.1  In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
William  of  Wykeham  and  King  Henry  VI.  built  and  endowed  col- 
leges which  were  specially  designed  to  fit  their  pupils  to  live  in 
the  world  and  serve  the  state,  instead  of  withdrawing  from  it  to 
seek  their  own  salvation.  These  new  institutions  encouraged  a 
broader  range  of  studies,  and  in  Henry  VI. 's  time  particular  atten- 
tion was  given  to  the  Latin  classics,  hitherto  but  little  known.  The 
geographical  discoveries  of  Henry  VII. 's  reign,  made  by  Columbus, 
Cabot,  and  others,  began  to  stimulate  scientific  thought,  and  it  was 
evident  that  the  day  was  not  far  distant  when  questions  about 
the  earth  and  the  stars  would  no  longer  be  settled  by  a  text  from 
Scripture  which  forbade  further  inquiry. 

With  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  education  received  a  still 
further  impulse.  A  few  zealous  English  scholars  had  just  returned 
from  Italy  to  Oxford,  full  of  ardor  for  a  new  study,  —  that  of  Greek. 
Among  them  was  a  young  clergyman  named  John  Colet.  He  saw 
that  by  means  of  that  language,  of  which  the  alphabet  was  as  yet 
hardly  known  in  England,  men  might  put  themselves  in  direct 
communication  with  the  greatest  thinkers  and  writers  of  the  past. 
Better  still,  they  might  acquire  the  power  of  reading  the  Gospels 
and  the  writings  of  St.  Paul  in  the  original,  and  thus  reach  their 

1  In  the  twelfth  century  418  monasteries  were  founded  in  England ;  in  the  next 
century  only  about  a  third  as  many ;  in  the  fourteenth  only  23 ;  after  that  date  thei; 
establishment  may  be  said  to  cease. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  189 

true  meaning  and  feel  their  full  influence.  Colet's  intimate  friend 
and  fellow-worker,  the  Dutch  scholar  Erasmus,  had  the  same  en- 
thusiasm. When  in  sore  need  of  everything,  he  wrote  in  one  of 
his  letters,  "As  soon  as  I  get  some  money  I  shall  buy  Greek 
books,  and  then  I  may  buy  some  clothes."  The  third  young  man, 
who,  with  Erasmus  and  Colet  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Greek  and  to  the  advancement  of  learning,  was  Thomas  More, 
who  later  became  lord  chancellor.  The  three  looked  to  King 
Henry  for  encouragement  in  the  work  they  had  undertaken ;  nor 
did  they  look  in  vain.  Colet,  who  had  become  a  doctor  of  divin- 
ity and  a  dean  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  encountered  a 
furious  storm  of  opposition  on  account  of  his  devotion  to  the 
"  New  Learning,"  as  it  was  sneeringly  called.  His  attempts  at 
educational  reform  met  the  same  resistance.  But  Henry  stood  by 
him,  liking  the  man's  spirit,  and  saying,  "  Let  others  have  what 
doctors  they  will ;  this  is  the  doctor  for  me."  The  king  also  took 
a  lively  interest  in  Erasmus,  who  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  began  his  great  work  of  preparing  an 
edition  01  the  Greek  Testament  with  a  Latin  translation  in  parallel 
columns.  Up  to  this  time  the  Greek  Testament  had  existed  in 
scattered  manuscripts  only.  The  publication  of  the  work  in  printed 
form  gave  an  additional  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
helped  forward  the  Reformation,  and  in  a  measure  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  a  revised  English  translation  of  the  Bible  far  superior 
to  Wycliffe's.  In  the  same  spirit  of  genuine  love  of  learning, 
Henry  founded  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  at  a  later  date 
confirmed  and  extended  Cardinal  Wolsey's  endowment  of  Christ 
Church  College,  Oxford. 

392.  Henry  versus  Luther.  —  The  king  continued,  however, 
to  be  a  staunch  Romanist,  and  certainly  had  no  thought  at  this 
period  of  doing  anything  which  should  tend  to  undermine  the 
ancient  Catholic  worship.  In  Germany,  Martin  Luther  was  fitting 
himself  for  his  attack  on  the  errors  and  corruptions  of  the  Papacy. 
In  1517  he  nailed  to  the  door  of  the  church  of  Wittenberg  that 


LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

famous  series  of  denunciations  which  began  the  movement  that 
ultimately  protested  against  spiritual  tyranny,  and  gave  the  name 
of  Protestant  to  all  who  joined  it.  A  few  years  later  Henry  pub- 
lished a  reply  to  one  of  Luther's  books,  and  sent  a  copy  bound  in 
cloth  of  gold  to  the  Pope.  The  Pope  was  so  delighted  with  what 
he  termed  Henry's  "angelic  spirit,"  that  he  forthwith  conferred  on 
him  that  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  which  the  English  sov- 
ereigns have  persisted  in  retaining  to  the  present  time,  though  for 
what  reason,  and  with  what  right,  even  a  royal  intellect  might  be 
somewhat  puzzled  to  explain.  With  the  new  and  flattering  title 
the  Pope  also  sent  the  king  a  costly  two-handed  sword,  intended 
to  represent  Henry's  zeal  in  smiting  the  enemies  of  Rome,  but 
destined  by  fate  to  be  the  symbol  of  the  king's  final  separation 
from  the  power  that  bestowed  it. 

393.  Victory  of  Flodden ;  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  —  Politi- 
cally, Henry  was  equally  fortunate.    The  Scotch  had  ventured  to 
attack  the  kingdom  during  the  king's  absence  on  the  continent. 
They  were  defeated  at  Flodden  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  with  great 
slaughter.    This  victory  placed  Scotland  at  Henry's  feet.1 

The  king  of  France  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  of  Germany 
now  vied  with  each  other  in  seeking  Henry's  alliance,  The  em- 
peror visited  England  in  order  to  meet  the  English  sovereign, 
while  the  king  of  France  arranged  an  interview  in  his  own  domin- 
ions, known,  from  the  magnificence  of  its  appointments,  as  the 
"  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold."  Henry  held  the  balance  of  power 
by  which  he  could  make  France  or  Germany  predominate  as  he 
saw  fit.  It  was  owing  to  his  able  diplomatic  policy  that  England 
reaped  advantages  from  both  sides,  and  advanced  from  a  compar- 
atively low  position  to  one  that  was  fully  abreast  of  the  foremost 
nations  of  Europe. 

394.  Henry's  Marriage  with  Ms  Brother's  Widow. — Such 
was  the  king  at  the  outset.     In  less  than  twenty  years  he  had  be- 
come another  man.     At  the  age  of  twelve  he  had  married,2  at  his 


iSee  Scott's  Marmion.    2  See  Hallam  ;  other  authorities  call  it  a  solemn  betrothal. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  IQI 

father's  command,  and  solely  for  political  and  mercenary  reasons, 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  brother  Arthur's  widow,  who  was  six 
years  his  senior.  Such  a  marriage  was  forbidden,  except  in  cer- 
tain cases,  both  by  the  Old  Testament  and  by  the  ordinances  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Pope,  however,  had  granted  his 
permission,  and  when  Henry  ascended  the  throne,  the  ceremony 
was  performed  a  second  time.  Several  children  were  the  fruit  of 
this  union,  all  of  whom  died  in  infancy,  except  one  daughter, 
Mary,  unhappily  fated  to  figure  as  the  "  Bloody  Mary  "  of  later 
history. 

395.  The  King's  Anxiety  for  a  Successor;   Anne  Boleyn. — 

No  woman  had  yet  ruled  in  her  own  right,  either  in  England  or  in 
any  prominent  kingdom  of  Europe  ;  and  so  anxious  was  Henry  to 
have  a  son  to  succeed  him,  that  he  had  several  years  before  sent 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham  to  the  block  for  casually  saying,  that  if 
the  king  died  without  issue,  he  should  consider  himself  entitled  to 
receive  the  crown. 

It  was  while  meditating  this  question  of  the  succession,  that 
Henry  became  attached  to  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of  the  queen's  maids 
of  honor,  a  sprightly  brunette  of  nineteen,  with  long  black  hair 
and  strikingly  beautiful  eyes. 

The  light  that  shone  in  those  eyes,  though  hardly  that  "  Gospel- 
light  "  which  the  poet  calls  it,1  was  yet  bright  enough  to  effectually 
clear  up  all  difficulties  in  the  royal  mind.  The  king  now  felt  con- 
scientiously moved  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  the  old  wife,  and  to 
marry  a  new  one.  In  that  determination  lay  most  momentous 
consequences,  since  it  finally  separated  England  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  church  of  Rome. 

396.  Wolsey  favors  the  Divorce  from  Catharine.  —  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  Henry's  chief  counsellor,  lent  his  powerful  aid  to  bring 
about  the  divorce,  but  with  the  expectation  that  the  king  would 
marry  a  princess  of  France,  and  thus  form  an  alliance  with  that 

1  "  When  love  could  teach  a  monarch  to  be  wise, 

And  Gospel-light  first  dawned  from  Bullen's  [Boleyn's]  eyes."  —  GRAY. 


192  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

country.  If  so,  his  own  ambitious  schemes  would  be  forwarded, 
since  the  united  influence  of  the  two  kingdoms  might  elevate  him 
to  the  Papacy.  When  Wolsey  learned  that  the  king's  choice 
was  Anne  Boleyn,  he  fell  on  his  knees,  and  begged  him  not  to 
persist  in  his  purpose ;  but  his  entreaties  had  no  effect,  and  the 
cardinal  was  obliged  to  continue  what  he  had  begun. 

397.  The  Court  at  Blackfriars.  —  Application  had  been  made 
to  the  Pope  to  annul  the  marriage  with  Catharine  on  the  ground 
of  illegality;  but  the   Pope  was  in  the  power  of  the   emperor, 
Charles  V.,  who  was  the  queen's  nephew.     Vexatious  delays  now 
became  the  order  of  the  day.     At  last,  a  court  composed  of  Car- 
dinal Wolsey  and  Cardinal  Campeggio,  an  Italian,  as  papal  legates, 
or  representatives,  was  convened  at  Blackfriars,  London,  to  test 
the  validity  of  the  marriage.     Henry  and  Catharine  were  sum- 
moned.    The  first  appeared  and  answered  to  his  name.     When 
the  queen  was  called  she  declined  to  answer,  but  throwing  herself 
at  Henry's  feet,  begged  him  with  tears  and  sobs  not  to  put  her 
away  without  cause.     Finding  him  inflexible,  she  left  the  court, 
and  refused  to  attend  again,  appealing  to  Rome  for  justice. 

This  was  in  the  spring  of  1529.  Nothing  was  done  that  sum- 
mer, and  in  the  autumn,  the  court,  instead  of  reaching  a  decision, 
dissolved.  Campeggio,  the  Italian  legate,  returned  to  Italy,  and 
Henry,  to  his  disappointment  and  rage,  received  an  order  from 
Rome  to  carry  the  question  to  the  Pope  for  settlement. 

398.  Fall  of  Wolsey.  —  Both  the  king  and  Anne  Boleyn  be- 
lieved that  Wolsey  had  played  false  with  them.    They  now  resolved 
upon  his  destruction.     The  cardinal  had  a  presentiment  of  his 
impending  doom.     The  French  ambassador,  who  saw  him  at  this 
juncture,  said  that  his  face  had  shrunk  to  half  its  size.     But  his 
fortunes  were  destined  to  shrink  even  more  than  his  face.     By 
a  law  of  Richard   II.  no  representative  of  the   Pope  had  any 
rightful  authority  in  England.1     Though  the   king  had  given  his 
consent  to  Wolsey's  holding  the  office  of  legate,  yet  now  that  a 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  317. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  IQ3 

contrary  result  to  what  he  expected  had  been  reached,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  prosecute  him  to  the  full  extent  of  the  law. 

It  was  an  easy  matter  to  crush  the  cardinal.  His  arrogance  and 
extravagant  ostentation  had  excited  the  jealous  hate  of  the  nobil- 
ity ;  his  constant  demands  for  money  in  behalf  of  the  king  had  set 
Parliament  against  him ;  and  his  exactions  from  the  common  peo- 
ple had,  as  the  chronicle  of  the  time  tells  us,  made  them  weep, 
beg,  and  "  speak  cursedly."  Wolsey  bowed  to  the  storm,  and  to 
save  himself  gave  up  everything;  his  riches,  pomp,  power,  all  van- 
ished as  suddenly  as  they  had  come.  It  was  Henry's  hand  that 
stripped  him,  but  it  was  Anne  Boleyn  who  moved  that  hand. 
Well  might  the  humbled  favorite  say  of  her  :  — 

"  There  was  the  weight  that  pulled  me  down. 

...  all  my  glories 
In  that  one  woman  I  have  lost  forever."  1 

Thus  deprived  of  well-nigh  everything  but  life,  Wolsey  was  per- 
mitted to  go  into  retirement  in-  the  north;  but  a  twelvemonth 
later  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  ;  and  as  the  irony 
of  fate  would  have  it,  the  warrant  was  served  by  a  former  lover  of 
Anne  Boleyn's,  whom  Wolsey,  it  is  said,  had  separated  from  her  in 
order  that  she  might  consummate  her  unhappy  marriage  with  roy- 
alty. On  the  way  to  London  Wolsey  fell  mortally  ill,  and  turned 
aside  at  Leicester  to  die  in  the  abbey  there,  with  the  words :  — 

"  .  .  .  O,  Father  Abbot, 
An  old  man,  broken  with  the  storms  of  state, 
Is  come  to  lay  his  weary  bones  among  ye : 
Give  him  a  little  earth  for  charity ! "  2 

399.  Appeal  to  the  Universities.  — Before  Wolsey's  death,  Dr. 
Thomas  Cranmer,  of  Cambridge,  suggested  that  the  king  lay  the 
divorce  question  before  the  universities  of  Europe.  Henry  caught 
eagerly  at  this  proposition,  and  exclaimed,  "  Cranmer  has  the  right 
pig  by  the  ear."  The  scheme  was  at  once  adopted.  Several  uni- 

1  Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII.,  Act  III.  Sc.  2. 

2  Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII.,  Act  IV.  Sc.  2. 


IQ4  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

versities  returned  favorable  answers.  In  a  few  instances,  as  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  where  the  authorities  hesitated,  a  judicious 
use  of  bribes  or  threats  soon  brought  them  to  see  the  matter  in  a 
proper  light. 

400.  The  Clergy  declare  Henry  Head  of  the  Church.  —  Armed 
with  these  decisions  in  his  favor,  Henry  now  charged  the  whole 
body  of  the  English  church  with  being  guilty  of  the  same  crime  of 
which  Wolsey  had  been  accused.     In  their  terror  they  made  haste 
to  buy  a  pardon  at  a  cost  reckoned  at  nearly  $5,000,000  at  the 
present  value  of  money.     They  furthermore  declared  Henry  to  be 
the  supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  church  of  England,  adroitly 
adding,  "  in  so  far  as  is  permitted  by  the  law  of  Christ."     Thus 
the  Reformation  came  into  England  "  by  a  side  door,  as  it  were." 
Nevertheless,  it  came. 

401 .  Henry  marries  Anne  Boleyn ;    Act  of  Supremacy.  — 

Events  now  moved  rapidly  toward  a  crisis.  Thomas  Cromwell, 
Wolsey's  former  servant  and  fast  friend,  succeeded  him  in  the 
king's  favor.  In  1533,  after  having  waited  over  five  years,  Henry 
privately  married  Anne,  and  she  was  soon  after  crowned  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  When  the  Pope  was  informed  of  this,  he  or- 
dered the  king,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  to  put  her  away, 
and  to  take  back  Catharine.  In  1534  Parliament  met  that  de- 
mand by  passing  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  which  declared  Henry  to 
be  without  reservation  the  sole  head  of  the  church,  making  denial 
thereof  high  treason.1  As  he  signed  the  act,  the  king  with  one 
stroke  of  his  pen  overturned  the  traditions  of  a  thousand  years, 
and  England  stood  boldly  forth  with  a  national  church  independent 
of  the  Pope. 

402.  Subserviency    of    Parliament.  —  But    as   Luther    said, 
Henry  had  a  pope  within  him.     Through  Cromwell's  zealous  aid 

l  Henry's  full  title  was  now  "  Henry  VIII..  by  the  Grace  of  God,  King  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Ireland,  Defender  of  the  Faith  and  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  also  of  Ireland,  on  earth  the  Supreme  Head." 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  195 

he  now  proceeded  to  prove  it.  We  have  already  seen  that  since 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  had  destroyed  the  power  of  the  barons, 
there  was  no  effectual  check  on  the  despotic  will  of  the  king.  The 
new  nobility  were  the  creatures  of  the  crown,  and  hence  bound  to 
support  it ;  the  clergy  were  timid,  the  commons  anything  but 
bold,  so  that  Parliament  gradually  became  the  servile  echo  and 
ready  instrument  of  the  throne,  and  empowered  the  king  on  his 
reaching  the  age  of  twenty-four  to  annul  whatever  legislative  enact- 
ments he  pleased  of  those  which  had  been  passed  since  his  acces- 
sion. It  now  humiliated  itself  still  further  by  promulgating  that 
law,  in  itself  the  destruction  of  all  law,  which  enabled  Henry  by  his 
simple  proclamation  to  declare  any  opinions  he  disliked,  heretical, 
and  punishable  with  death. 

403.  Execution  of  More  and  Fisher.  — Cromwell  in  his  crooked 
and  cruel  policy  had  reduced  bloodshed  to  a  science.     He  first 
introduced  the  practice  of  condemning  an  accused  prisoner  with- 
out allowing  him  to  speak  in  his  own  defence.     No  one  was  now 
safe  who  did  not  openly  side  with  the  king.     Sir  Thomas  More, 
who  had  been  lord  chancellor,  and  the  aged  Bishop  Fisher  were 
executed  because  they  could  not  affirm  that  they  conscientiously 
believed  that  Henry  was  morally  and  spiritually  entitled  to  be  the 
head  of  the  English  church.     Both  died  with  Christian  fortitude. 
More  said  to  the  governor  of  the  Tower  with  a  flash  of  his  old 
humor,  as  the  steps  leading  to  the  scaffold  shook  while  he  was 
mounting  them,  "  Do  you  see  me  safe  up,  and  I  will  make  shift 
to  get  down  by  myself." 

404.  Suppression  of  the  Monasteries ;  Seizure  of  their  Prop- 
erty.—  When  the  intelligence  of  the  judicial  murder  of  the  ven- 
erable ex-chancellor  reached  Rome,  the  Pope  proceeded  to  issue  a 
bull  of  excommunication  and  deposition  against  Henry,  by  which 
he  delivered  his  soul  to  the  devil,  and  his  kingdom  to  the  first  in- 
vader.   The  king  retaliated  by  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries. 
In  doing  so,  he  simply  hastened  a  process  which  had  already 
begun.    Years  before,  Cardinal  Wolsey  had  not  scrupled  to  shut  up 


196  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

several,  and  take  their  revenues  to  found  a  college  at  Oxford.  The 
truth  was,  that  monasticism  had  done  its  work,  and  as  a  recent 
writer  has  well  said,  "  was  dead  long  before  the  Reformation  came 
to  bury  it." 1 

Henry,  however,  had  no  such  worthy  object  as  Wolsey  had. 
His  pretext  was  that  these  institutions  had  sunk  into  a  state  of 
ignorance,  drunkenness,  and  profligacy. 

Their  vices,  however,  the  king  had  already  made  his  own.  It 
was  their  wealth  which  he  now  coveted.  The  smaller  religious 
houses  were  speedily  swept  out  of  existence.  This  caused  a  furi- 
ous insurrection  in  the  north,  but  the  revolt  was  soon  put  down. 

Though  Parliament  had  readily  given  its  sanction  to  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  smaller  monasteries,  it  hesitated  about  abolishing  the 
greater  ones.  Henry,  it  is  reported,  sent  for  a  leading  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the 
kneeling  representative,  said,  "  Get  my  bill  passed  by  to-morrow, 
little  man,  or  else  to-morrow  this  head  of  yours  will  come  off." 
The  next  day  the  bill  passed,  and  the  work  of  destruction  began 
anew.  It  involved  the  confiscation  of  millions  of  property,  and 
the  summary  execution  of  abbots,  who,  like  those  of  Glastonbury 
and  Charter  House,  dared  to  resist.2 

The  magnificent  monastic  buildings  throughout  England  were 
now  stripped  of  everything  of  value,  and  left  as  ruins.  The 
beautiful  windows  of  stained  glass  were  wantonly  broken;  the 
images  of  the  saints  were  cast  down  from  their  niches ;  the 
chimes  of  bells  were  melted  and  cast  into  cannon ;  while  the  valu- 
able libraries  were  torn  up  and  sold  to  grocers  and  soap-boilers 
for  wrapping-paper.  At  Canterbury,  Becket's  tomb  was  broken 
open,  and  after  he  had  been  four  centuries  in  his  grave,  the  saint 
was  summoned  to  answer  a  charge  of  rebellion  and  treason.  The 
case  was  tried  at  Westminster  Abbey,  the  martyr's  bones  were 

1  Armitage,  Childhood  of  the  English  Nation. 

2  The  total  number  of  religious  houses  destroyed  was  645  monasteries,  2374 
chapels,  go  collegiate  churches,  and  no  charitable  institutions.    Among  the  most 
famous  of  these  ruins  are  Kirkstall,  Furness,  Netley,  Tintern,  and  Fountains  Abbeys. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  197 

sentenced  to  be  burned,  and  the  jewels  and  rich  offerings  of  his 
shrine  were  seized  by  the  king. 

Among  the  few  monastic  buildings  which  escaped  was  the  beau- 
tiful abbey  church  of  Peterborough,  where  Catharine  of  Aragon, 
who  died  soon  after  the  king's  marriage  with  her  rival,  was  buried. 
Henry  had  the  grace  to  give  orders  that  on  her  account  it  should 
be  spared,  saying  that  he  would  leave  to  her  memory  "  one  of 
the  goodliest  monuments  in  Christendom." 

The  great  estates  thus  suddenly  acquired  by  the  crown  were 
granted  tc  favorites  or  thrown  away  at  the  gambling- table.  "  It  is 
from  this  date,"  says  Hallam,  "  that  the  leading  families  of  Eng- 
land, both  within  and  without  the  peerage,  became  conspicuous 
through  having  obtained  possession  of  the  monastery  lands." 
These  were  estimated  to  comprise  about  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
area  of  the  kingdom. 

405.  Effects  of  the  Destruction  of  the  Monasteries. — The 

sweeping  character  of  this  act  had  a  twofold  effect.  First,  it  made 
the  king  more  absolute  than  before,  for,  since  it  removed  the 
abbots,  who  had  had  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords,  that  body  was 
made  just  so  much  smaller  and  less  able  to  resist  the  royal  will. 

Next,  the  abolition  of  so  many  religious  institutions  necessarily 
caused  great  misery  to  those  who  were  turned  out  upon  the  world 
destitute  of  means  and  without  ability  to  work.  In  the  end,  how- 
ever, no  permanent  injury  was  done,  since  the  monasteries,  by 
their  profuse  and  indiscriminate  charity,  had  undoubtedly  en- 
couraged much  of  the  very  pauperism  which  they  had  relieved. 

406.  Distress  among  the  Laboring  Classes.  —  An  industrial 
revolution  was  also  in  progress  at  this  time  which  was  productive 
of  wide-spread  suffering.     It  had  begun  early  in  Henry's  reign 
through  the  great  numbers  of  discharged  soldiers,  who  could  not 
readily  find  work.     Sir  Thomas  More  had  given  a  striking  picture 
of  their  miserable  condition  in  his  "  Utopia,"  a  book  in  which  he 
urged  the  government  to  consider  measures  for  their  relief ;  but  the 
evil  had  since  become  much  worse.     Farmers,  having  discovered 


198  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

that  wool-growing  was  more  profitable  than  the  raising  of  grain, 
had  turned  their  fields  into  sheep-pastures;  so  that  a  shepherd 
with  his  dog  now  took  the  place  of  several  families  of  laborers. 
This  change  brought  multitudes  of  poor  people  to  the  verge  of 
starvation ;  and  as  the  monasteries  no  longer  existed  to  hold  out  a 
helping  hand,  the  whole  realm  was  overrun  with  beggars  and 
thieves.  Bishop  Latimer,  a  noted  preacher  of  that  day,  declared 
that  if  every  farmer  should  raise  two  acres  of  hemp,  it  would  not 
make  rope  enough  to  hang  them  all.  Henry,  however,  set  to  work 
with  characteristic  vigor,  and  it  is  said  made  way  with  over  70,000, 
but  without  materially  abating  the  evil. 

407.  Execution  of  Anne  Boleyn;  Marriage  with  Jane  Sey- 
mour. —  In  1536,  less  than  three  years  after  her  coronation,  the 
new  queen,  Anne  Boleyn,  for  whom  Henry  had  "  turned  England 
and  Europe  upside  down,"  was  accused  of  unfaithfulness.     She 
was  sent  a  prisoner  to  the  Tower.     A  short  time  after,  her  head 
rolled  in  the  dust,  the  light  of  its  beauty  gone  out  forever. 

The  next  morning  Henry  married  Jane  Seymour,  Anne's  maid 
of  honor.  Parliament  passed  an  act  of  approval,  declaring  that  it 
was  all  done  "  of  the  king's  most  excellent  goodness. "  A  year  later 
the  queen  died,  leaving  a  son,  Edward.  She  was  no  sooner  gone 
than  the  king  began  looking  about  for  some  one  to  take  her  place. 

408.  More  Marriages. — This  time  Cromwell  had  projects  of 
his  own  for  a  German  Protestant  alliance.     He  succeeded  in  per- 
suading his  master  to  agree  to  marry  Anne  of  Cleves,  a  German 
princess,  whom  the  king  had  never  seen,  but  whom  the  painter 
Holbein  represented  in  a  portrait  as  a  woman  of  surpassing  beauty. 

When  Anne  reached  England,  Henry  hurried  to  meet  her  with 
all  a  lover's  ardor.  To  his  dismay,  he  found  that  not  only  was  she 
ridiculously  ugly,  but  that  she  could  speak  —  so  he  said  —  "  nothing 
but  Dutch,"  of  which  he  did  not  understand  a  word.  Matters, 
however,  had  gone  too  far  to  retract,  and  the  marriage  was  duly 
solemnized.  The  king  obtained  a  divorce  within  six  months,  and 
then  took  his  revenge  by  cutting  off  Cromwell's  head. 


POLITICAL    REACTION. 

The  same  year  Henry  married  Catharine  Howard,  a  fascinating 
girl  still  in  her  teens,  whose  charms  so  moved  the  king  that  it  is 
said  he  was  tempted  to  have  a  special  thanksgiving  service  pre- 
pared to  commemorate  the  day  he  found  her.  Unfortunately, 
Catharine  had  fallen  into  dishonor  before  her  marriage.  She  tried 
hard  to  keep  the  terrible  secret,  but  finding  it  impossible,  confessed 
her  fault.  For  such  cases  Henry  had  no  mercy.  The  queen  was 
tried  for  high  treason,  and  soon  walked  that  road  in  which  Anne 
Boleyn  had  preceded  her. 

Not  to  be  baffled  in  his  matrimonial  experiments,  the  king,  in 
1543,  took  Catherine  Parr  for  his  sixth  and  last  wife.,  She,  too, 
would  have  gone  to  the  block,  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  had  not  her 
quick  wit  saved  her  by  a  happily  turned  compliment,  which  flat- 
tered the  king's  self-conceit  as  a  profound  theologian. 

409.  Henry's  Action  respecting  Religion.  —  Though  occupied 
with  these  rather  numerous  domestic  infelicities,  Henry  was  not 
idle  in  other  directions.  By  an  act  known  as  the  Six  Articles,  or,  as 
the  Protestants  called  it,  the  "  Bloody  Act,"  the  king  established  a 
new  form  of  religion,  which  in  words,  at  least,  was  practically  the 
same  as  that  upheld  by  the  Pope,  but  with  the  Pope  left  out. 
Geographically,  the  country  was  about  equally  divided  between 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism.  The  northern  and  western  half 
clung  to  the  ancient  faith ;  the  southern  and  eastern,  including 
most  of  the  large  cities  where  Wycliffe's  doctrines  had  formerly 
prevailed,  was  favorable  to  the  Reformation.  On  the  one  hand, 
Henry  prohibited  the  Lutheran  doctrine ;  on  the  other,  he  caused 
the  Bible  to  be  translated,  and  ordered  a  copy  to  be  chained  to  a 
desk  in  every  parish  church  in  England ;  but  though  all  persons 
might  now  freely  read  the  Scriptures,  no.  one  but  the  clergy 
was  allowed  to  interpret  them.  Later  in  his  reign,  the  king 
became  alarmed  at  the  spread  of  discussion  about  religious  sub- 
jects, and  prohibited  the  reading  of  the  Bible  by  the  "  lower  sort 
of  people." 


2OO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

410.  Heresy  versus  Treason.  —  Men  now  found  themselves  in 
a  strange  and  cruel  dilemma.     If  it  was  dangerous  to  believe  too 
much,  it  was  equally  dangerous  to  believe  too  little.     Traitor  and 
heretic  were  dragged  to  execution  on  the  same  hurdle  :  for  Henry 
burned  as  heretics  those  who  declared  their  belief  in  Protestantism, 
and  hanged  as  traitors  those  who  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the 
Pope.    Thus  Anne  Askew,  a  young  and  beautiful  woman,  was  nearly 
wrenched  asunder  on  the  rack,  in  the  hope  of  making  her  implicate 
the  queen  in  her  heresy,  and  afterward  burned  because  she  insisted 
that  the  bread  and  wine  used  in  the  communion  service  seemed  to 
her  to  be  simply  bread  and  wine,  and  not  in  any  sense  the  actual 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  as  the  king's  statute  of  the  "  Six  Articles  " 
solemnly  declared.      On  the  other  hand,  the  aged  Countess  of 
Salisbury  suffered  for  treason ;    but  with  a  spirit  matching  the 
king's,  she  refused  to  kneel  at  the  block,  and  told  the  executioner 
he  must  get  her  gray  head  off  as  best  he  could. 

411.  Henry's  Death.  — But  the  time  was  at  hand  when  Henry 
was  to  cease  his  hangings,  beheadings,  and  marriages.     Worn  out 
with  debauchery,  he  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-six,  a  loathsome,  un- 
wieldy, and  helpless  mass  of  corruption.    In  his  will  he  left  a  large 
sum  of  money  to  pay  for  perpetual  prayers  for  the  repose  of  his 
soul.     Sir  Walter  Raleigh  said  of  him,  "  If  all  the  pictures  and  pat- 
terns of  a  merciless  prince  were  lost  in  the  world,  they  might  all 
again  be  painted  to  the  life  out  of  the  story  of  this  king."     It  may 
be  well  to  remember  this,  and  along  with  it  this  other  saying  of 
the  ablest  living  writer  on  English  constitutional  history,  that  "the 
world  owes  some  of  its  greatest  debts  to  men  from  whose  memory 
it  recoils."  *      The  obligation  it  is  under  to  Henry  VIII.  is  that 
through  his  influence  —  no  matter  what  the  motive  —  England 
was  lifted  up  out  of  the  old  mediaeval  ruts,  and  placed  squarely 
and  securely  on  the  new  highway  of  national  progress. 

412.  Summary.  —  In  this  reign  we  find  that  though  England 
lost  much  of  her  former  political  freedom,  yet  she  gained  that 

1  Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  2OI 

order  and  peace  which  came  from  the  iron  hand  of  absolute 
power.  Next,  from  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries,  and  the 
sale  or  gift  of  their  lands  to  favorites  of  the  king,  three  results 
ensued  :  ( i )  a  new  nobility  was  in  great  measure  created,  depen- 
dent on  the  crown;  (2)  the  House  of  Lords  was  made  less 
powerful  by  the  removal  of  the  abbots  who  had  had  seats  in  it ; 
(3)  pauperism  was  for  a  time  largely  increased,  and  much  distress 
caused,  finally,  England  completely  severed  her  connection  with 
the  Pope,  and  established  for  the  first  time  an  independent 
national  church,  having  the  king  as  its  head. 

EDWARD  VI.— 1547-1553. 

413.  Bad  Government ;  Seizure  of  Unenclosed  Lands ;  High 
Rents ;  Latimer's  Sermon.  —  Edward,  son  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Jane 
Seymour,  died  at  sixteen.  In  the  first  of  his  reign  of  six  years 
the  government  was  managed  by  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
an  extreme  Protestant,  whose  intentions  were  good,  but  who  lacked 
practical  judgment.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Edward  fell 
under  the  control  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  was  the 
head  of  a  band  of  scheming  and  profligate  men.  They,  with  other 
nobles,  seized  the  unenclosed  lands  of  the  country  and  fenced 
them  in  for  sheep  pastures,  thus  driving  into  beggary  many  who 
had  formerly  got  a  good  part  of  their  living  from  these  commons. 
At  the  same  time  farm  rents  rose  in  some  cases  ten  and  even 
twenty-fold,1  depriving  thousands  of  the  means  of  subsistence,  and 
reducing  many  who  had  been  in  comfortable  circumstances  to 
poverty. 

The  bitter  complaints  of  the  sufferers  found  expression  in  Bishop 
I^atimer's  outspoken  sermon  preached  before  the  king,  in  which 
he  said:  "My  father  was  a  yeoman  [small  farmer],  and  had 
no  lands  of  his  own,  only  he  had  a  farm  of  three  or  four  pounds 

1  This  was  owing  to  the  greed  for  land  on  the  part  of  the  mercantile  classes,  who 
had  now  acquired  wealth,  and  wished  to  become  landed  proprietors.  See  P'roude's 
Englnnd. 


2O2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

[rent]  by  year,  and  hereupon  tilled  so  much  as  kept  half  a 
dozen  men ;  he  had  walk  [pasture]  for  a  hundred  sheep,  and  my 
mother  milked  thirty  kine.  He  was  able  and  did  find  the  king 
a  harness  [suit  of  armor]  with  himself  and  his  horse,  until  he 
came  to  the  place  where  he  should  receive  the  king's  wages.  I 
can  remember  that  I  buckled  his  harness  when  he  went  into 
Blackheath  Field.  He  kept  me  to  school,  or  else  I  had  not  been 
able  to  have  preached  before  the  king's  majesty  now.  He  married 
my  sisters  with  five  pounds  .  .  .  apiece.  He  kept  hospitality  for  his 
poor  neighbors,  and  some  alms  he  gave  to  the  poor.  And  all  this 
he  did  off  the  said  farm,  where  he  that  now  hath  it  payeth  sixteen 
pounds  a  year  or  more,  and  is  not  able  to  do  anything  for  his 
prince,  for  himself,  nor  for  his  children,  or  give  a  cup  of  drink  to 
the  poor."  But  as  Latimer  pathetically  said,  "  Let  the  preacher 
preach  till  his  tongue  be  worn  to  the  stumps,  nothing  is  amended."1 

414.  Edward  establishes  Protestantism.  —  Henry  had  estab- 
lished the  Church  of  England  as  an  independent  organization. 
His  son  took  the  next  great  step,  and  made  it  Protestant  in  doc- 
trine.    At  his  desire,  Archbishop  Cranmer  compiled  a  book  of 
Common  Prayer,  taken  largely  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Prayer- 
book.     This  collection  all  churches  were  now  obliged  by  law  to 
use.     Edward's  sister,  the  Princess  Mary,  was  a  firm  Catholic.    She 
refused  to  adopt  the  new  service,  saying  to  Ridley,  who  urged  her 
to  accept  it  as  God's  word,  "  I  cannot  tell  what  you  call  God's 
word,  for  that  is  not  God's  word  now  which  was  God's  word  in  my 
father's  time."     It  was  at  this  period,  also,  that  the  Articles  of 
Faith  of  the  Church  of  England  were  first  drawn  up. 

415.  King  Edward  and  Mary  Stuart.  —  Henry  VIII.  had  at- 
tempted to  marry  his  son  Edward  to  young  Queen  Mary  Stuart, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Scotland,  but  the  match  had  been  broken 
off.     Edward's  guardian  now  insisted  that  it  should  be  carried  out. 
He  invaded  Scotland  with  an  army,  and  attempted  to  effect  the 

1  Larimer's  first  serrnon  before  King  Edward  VI.,  8th  of  March,  1549. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  2O3 

marriage  by  force  of  arms,  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie.  The  English 
gained  a  decided  victory,  but  the  youthful  queen,  instead  of  giving 
her  hand  to  young  King  Edward,  left  the  country  and  married  the 
son  of  the  king  of  France.  She  will  appear  with  melancholy 
prominence  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Had  she  married  Edward, 
we  should  perhaps  have  been  spared  that  tragedy  in  which  she 
was  called  to  play  both  the  leading  and  the  losing  part. 

416.  Renewed  Confiscation  of   Church  Property ;    Schools 
founded.  —  The   confiscation   of  such   Roman   Catholic   church 
property  as  had  been  spared  was  now  renewed.     The  result  of  this 
and  of  the  abandonment  of  Catholicism  was  in  certain  respects 
disastrous  to  the  country.     In  this  general  break-up,  many  who 
had  been  held  in  restraint  by  the  old  forms  of  faith  now  went  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  rejected  all  religion. 

Part,  however,  of  the  money  thus  obtained  from  the  sale  of 
church  property  was  devoted,  mainly  through  Edward's  influence, 
to  the  endowment  of  upwards  of  forty  grammar  schools,  besides  a 
number  of  hospitals,  in  different  sections  of  the  country.  But  for 
a  long  time  the  destruction  of  the  monastic  schools,  poor  as  they 
were,  was  a  serious  blow  to  the  education  of  the  common  people. 

417.  Edward's  London  Charities;    Christ's  Hospital.  —  Just 
before  his  death  Edward  established  Christ's  Hospital,  and  re- 
founded  and  renewed  the  hospitals  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Bar- 
tholomew in  London.     Thus  "  he  was  the  founder,"  says  Burnet, 
"  of  those  houses  which,  by  many  great  additions  since  that  time, 
have  risen  to  be  amongst  the  noblest  of  Europe."  1 

Christ's  Hospital  was,  perhaps,  the  first  Protestant  charity  school 
opened  in  England ;  many  more  were  patterned  on  it.  It  is 
generally  known  as  the  Blue-Coat  School,  from  the  costume  of 
the  boys  —  a  relic  of  the  days  of  Edward  VI.  This  consists  of  a 
long  blue  coat,  like  a  monk's  gown,  reaching  to  the  ankles,  girded 
with  a  broad  leathern  belt,  long,  bright  yellow  stockings,  and 

1  Burnet :  History  of  the  Reformation  in  England. 


2O4  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

buckled  shoes.  The  boys  go  bareheaded  winter  and  summer.  An 
exciting  game  of  foot-ball,  played  in  the  schoolyard  in  this  peculiar 
mediaeval  dress,  seems  strangely  in  contrast  with  the  sights  of 
modern  London  streets.  It  is  as  though  the  spectator,  by  passing 
through  a  gateway,  had  gone  back  over  three  centuries  of  time. 
Coleridge,  Lamb,  and  other  noted  men  of  letters  were  educated 
here,  and  have  left  most  interesting  reminiscences  of  their  school 
life,  especially  the  latter,  in  his  delightful  "  Essays  of  Elia." l 

418.  Effect  of  Catholicism  versus  Protestantism. — Speaking 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation,  of  which  Edward  VI.  may  be  taken 
as  a  representative,  Macaulay  remarks  that  "  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether   England    received    most    advantage   from   the   Roman 
Catholic  religion  or  from  the  Reformation.     For  the  union  of  the 
Saxon  and  Norman  races,  and  the  abolition  of  slavery,  she  is 
chiefly  indebted  to  the  influences  which  the  priesthood  in  the 
Middle  Ages  exercised  over  the  people  ;  for  political  and  intellect- 
ual freedom,  and  for  all  the  blessings  which  they  have  brought  in 
their  train,  she  owes  most  to  the  great  rebellion  of  the  people 
against  the  priesthood." 

419.  Summary.  —  The  establishment  of  the  Protestant  faith  in 
England,  and  of  a  large  number  of  free. Protestant  schools  known 
as  Edward  VI. 's  schools,  may  be  regarded  as  the  leading  events 
of  Edward's  brief  reign  of  six  years. 

MARY.— 1553-1558. 

420.  Lady  Jane  Grey  claims  the  Crown.  —  On  the  death  of 
Edward,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  a  descendant  of  Henry  VII.,  and  a  dis- 
tant relative  of  Edward  VI.,  was  persuaded  by  her  father-in-law, 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  to  assume  the  crown,  which  had 
been  left  to  her  by  the  will  of  the  late  king.     Edward's  object  in 
naming   Lady  Jane  was  to  secure  a  Protestant  successor,  since 

1  See  Lamb's  Essays, "  Christ's  Hospital."  Hospital,  so  called  because  intended 
for  "  poor,  fatherless  children."  The  word  was  then  often  used  in  the  sense  of 
asvlum,  or  "  home.1' 


POLITICAL    REACTION. 


2O5 


his  elder  sister,  Mary,  was  a  devout  Catholic,  while  from  his 
younger  sister,  Elizabeth,  he  seems  for  some  reason  to  have  been 
estranged.  Mary  was  without  doubt  the  rightful  heir.1  She  re- 
ceived the  support  of  the  country,  and  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her 
husband,  Lord  Dudley,  were  sent  to  the  Tower. 

421.  Question  of  Mary's  Marriage;  Wyatt's  Rebellion.  - 
While  they  were  confined  there,  the  question  of  the  queen's  mar- 
riage came  up.  Out  of  several  candidates  for  her  hand,  Mary 
gave  preference  to  her  cousin,  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Her  choice 
was  very  unpopular,  for  it  was  known  in  England  that  Philip  was  a 
selfish  and  gloomy  fanatic,  who  cared  for  nothing  but  the  advance- 
ment of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

An  insurrection  now  broke  out,  led  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  place  the  Princess  Elizabeth  on  the  throne, 
and  thus  secure  the  crown  to  Protestantism.  Lady  Jane  Grey's 
father  was  implicated  in  the  rebellion.  The  movement  ended  in 
failure,  the  leaders  were  executed,  and  Mary  ordered  her  sister 

1  Table  showing  some  of  the  descendants  of  Henry  VII.,  with  the  respective 
claims  of  Queen  Mary  and  Lady  Jane  Grey  to  the  crown. 

Henry  VII.* 


Arthur, 
d.  1502, 

b.  1486, 
no  issue. 

nr" 

Henry  VHI. 

1 
Margaret. 

James  V.  of 
.,    Scotland, 
.       d.  1542. 

Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  b.  1542, 
d.1587. 

James  VI.  of 
Scotland  and  I. 
of  England, 
crowned  1603. 

—  i 

Mary,  m. 
Charles 
Brandon. 

1 
Frances 
Brandon,  m. 
Henry  Grey. 

Jane  Grey, 
m.  Lord  Guil- 
ford  Dudley, 
beheaded 
1554- 

Mary,  b. 
1516,  d.  1558. 

Elizabeth, 
b.  1533,  d. 
1603. 

1 

Edward  VI 
b.  1538,  d 
1553- 

*  The  heavy  lines  indicate  the  direct  order  of  succession.  Next  after  Henry  VIII. 's  de- 
scendants the  claim  would  go  to  the  descendants  of  Margaret  (No.  3),  and  lastly  to  those  of 
Mary,  wife  of  Charles  Brandon  (No.  4). 


2O6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Elizabeth,  who  was  thought  to  be  in  the  plot,  to  be  seized  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower. 

A  little  later,  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  perished  on  the 
scaffold.  The  name,  JANE,  deeply  cut  in  the  stone  wall  of  the 
Beauchamp  Tower,1  remains  as  a  memorial  of  the  nine  days' 
queen.  She  died  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  an  innocent  victim  of 
the  greatness  which  had  been  thrust  upon  her. 

422.  Mary  marries  Philip  II.  of  Spain ;  Efforts  to  restore 
Catholicism.  —  A  few  months  afterward  the  royal  marriage  was 
celebrated,  but  Philip  soon  found  that  the  air  of  England  had  too 
much  freedom  in  it  to  suit  his  delicate  constitution,  and  he  re- 
turned to  the  more  congenial  climate  of  Spain. 

From  that  time  Mary,  who  was  left  to  rule  alone,  directed  all 
her  efforts  to  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  church.  She  repealed 
the  legislation  of  Henry  VIII.'s  and  Edward  VI. 's  reign,  so  far  as 
it  gave  support  to  Protestantism.  The  old  relations  with  Rome 
were  resumed.  To  accomplish  her  object  in  supporting  her  re- 
ligion, the  queen  resorted  to  the  arguments  of  the  dungeon,  the 
rack,  and  the  fagot,  and  when  Bishops  Bonner  and  Gardiner 
slackened  their  work  of  persecution  and  death,  Mary,  half-crazed 
by  Philip's  desertion,  urged  them  not  to  stay  their  hands. 

423.  Devices  for  reading  the  Bible. — The  penalty  for  read- 
ing the  English  Scriptures,  or  for  offering  Protestant  prayers,  was 
death.      In  his  autobiography,  Benjamin  Franklin   says  that  one 
of  his  ancestors,  who  lived  in  England  in  Mary's  reign,  adopted 
the  following  expedient  for  giving  his  family  religious  instruction  : 
He  fastened  an  open  Bible  with  strips  of  tape  on  the  under  side  of 
a  stool.     When  he  wished  to  read  it  aloud  he  placed  the  stool  up- 
side down  on  his  knees,  and  turned  the  pages  under  the  tape  as 
he  read  them.     One  of  the  children  stood  watching  at  the  door  to 
give  the  alarm  if  any  one  approached ;  in  that  case,  the  stool  was 

1  The  Beauchamp  Tower  is  part  of  the  Tower  of  London.  On  its  walls  are 
scores  of  names  cut  by  those  who  were  imprisoned  in  it. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  2O/ 

set  quickly  on  its  feet  again  on  the  floor,  so  that  nothing  could  be 
seen. 

424.  Religious  Toleration  Unknown  in  Mary's  Age.  —  Mary 
would  doubtless  have  bravely  endured  for  her  faith  the  full  meas- 
ure of  suffering  which  she  inflicted.     Her  state  of  mind  was  that 
of  all  who  then  held  strong  convictions.     Each  party  believed  it  a 
duty  to  convert  or  exterminate  the  other,   and   the    alternative 
offered  to  the  heretic  was  to  "  turn  or  burn." 

Sir  Thomas  More,  who  gave  his  life  as  a  sacrifice  to  conscience 
in  Henry's  reign,  was  eager  to  put  Tyndale  to  the  torture  for 
translating  the  Bible.  Cranmer,  who  perished  at  Oxford,  had 
been  zealous  in  sending  to  the  flames  those  who  differed  from  him. 
Even  Latimer,  who  died  bravely  at  the  stake,  exhorting  his  com- 
panion Ridley  "  to  be  of  good  cheer  and  play  the  man,  since  they 
would  light  such  a  candle  in  England  that  day  as  in  God's  grace 
should  not  be  put  out,"  had  abetted  the  kindling  of  slow  fires 
under  men  as  honest  and  determined  as  himself  but  on  the  oppo- 
site side.  In  like  spirit  Queen 'Mary  kept  Smithfield  ablaze  with 
martyrs,  whose  blood  was  the  seed  of  Protestantism.  Yet  perse- 
cution under  Mary  never  reached  the  proportions  that  it  did  on 
the  continent.  At  the  most,  but  a  few  hundred  died  in  England 
.for  the  sake  of  their  religion,  while  Philip  II. ,  during  the  last  of 
his  reign,  covered  Holland  with  the  graves  of  Protestants,  tor- 
tured and  put  to  cruel  deaths,  or  buried  alive,  by  tens  of  thou- 
sands. 

425.  Mary's  Death.  —  But   Mary's   career  was  short.      She 
died  in   1558,  near  the  close  of  an  inglorious  war  with  France, 
which  ended  in  the  fall  of  Calais,  the  last  English  possession  on 
the  continent.     It  was  a  great  blow  to  her  pride,  and  a  serious 
humiliation  to  the  country.     "After  my  death,"  she  said,  "you 
will  find  Calais  written  on  my  heart."     Could  she  have  foreseen 
the  future,  her  grief  would  have  been  greater  still.     For  with  the 
end  of  her  reign  the  Pope  lost  all  power  in  England,  never  to 
regain  it. 


2O8  LEADING    FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

426.  Mary  deserving  of  Pity  rather  than  Hatred.  —  Mary's 
name  has  come  down  to  us  associated  with  an  epithet  expressive 
of  the  utmost  abhorrence ;    but  she  deserves   pity  rather   than 
hatred.     Her  cruelty  was  the  cruelty  of  sincerity,  never,  as  was  her 
father's,  the  result  of  indifference  or  caprice.     A  little  book  of 
prayers  which  she  left,  soiled  by  constant  use,  and  stained  with 
many  tears,  tells  the  story  of  her  broken  and  disappointed  life. 
Separated  from  her  mother,  the  unfortunate  Catharine  of  Aragon, 
when  she  was  only  sixteen,  she  was  ill-treated  by  Anne  Boleyn 
and  hated  by  her  father.     Thus  the  springtime  of  her  youth  was 
blighted.     Her  marriage  brought  her  no  happiness ;    sickly,  ill- 
favored,  childless,   unloved,  the   poor  woman   spent   herself  for 
naught.     Her  first  great  mistake  was  that  she  resolutely  turned  her 
face  toward  the  past ;  her  second,  that  she  loved  Philip  of  Spain 
with  all  her  heart,  soul,  and  strength,  and  so,  out  of  devotion  to  a 
bigot,  did  a  bigot's  work,  and  earned  that  execration  which  never 
fails  to  be  a  bigot's  reward. 

427.  Summary.  —  This  reign  should  be  looked  upon  as  a 
period  of  reaction.     The  temporary  check  which  Mary  gave  to 
Protestantism  deepened  and  strengthened  it.     Nothing  builds  up  a 
religious  faith  like  martyrdom,  and  the  next  reign  showed  that 
every  heretic  that  Mary  had  burned  helped  to  make  at  least  a  • 
hundred  more. 

ELIZABETH.  — 1558-1603. 

428.  Accession  of  Elizabeth.  —  Elizabeth  was  the  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn.     At  the  time  of  Mary's  death  she 
was  living  in  seclusion  in  Hatfield  House,  near  London,  spending 
most  of  her  time  in  studying  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.     When 
the  news  was  brought  to  her,  she  was  deeply  moved,  and  exclaimed, 
"  It  is  the  Lord's  doings  ;  it  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes."     Five  days 
afterwards  she  removed  to  London  by  that  road  over  which  the 
last  time  she  had  travelled  it  she  was  being  carried  a  prisoner  to 
the  Tower. 


POLITICAL   REACTION. 

429.  Difficulty  of  Elizabeth's  Position.  —  Her  position  was 
full  of  difficulty,  if  not  absolute  peril.     Mary  Stuart  of  Scotland, 
uow  by  marriage  queen  of  France,1  claimed  the  English  crown 
through  descent  from  Henry  VII.,  on  the  ground  that  Elizabeth, 
as  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn,  was  not  lawfully  entitled  to  the  throne, 
the  Pope  never  having  recognized  Henry's  second  marriage.    Both 
France  and  Rome  supported  this  claim.      On  the  other  hand, 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  favored  Elizabeth,  but  solely  because  he  hoped 
to  marry  her  and  annex  her  kingdom  to  his  dominions.     Scotland 
was  divided  between  two  religious  factions,  and  its  attitude  as  an 
independent  kingdom   could -hardly  be  called  friendly.     Ireland 
was  a  nest  of  desperate  rebels,  ready  to  join  any  attack  on  an 
English  sovereign. 

430.  Religious  Parties.  —  But  more  dangerous  than  all,  Eng- 
land was  divided  in  its  religion.     In  the  north,  many  noble  families 
stood  by  the  old  faith,  and  hoped  to  see  the  Pope's  power  restored. 
In  the  towns  of  the  southeast,  a  majority  favored  the  Protestant 
church  of  England  as  it  had  been  organized  under  Edward  VI. 

Besides  these  two  great  parties  there  were  two  more,  who  made 
up  in  zeal  and  determination  what  they  lacked  in  numbers.  One 
was  the  Jesuits ;  the  other,  the  Puritans.  The  Jesuits  were  a  new 
Roman  Catholic  order,  banded  together  to  support  the  church  and 
to  destroy  heresy ;  their  agents  and  spies  penetrated  every  coun- 
try ;  it  was  believed  that  they  hesitated  at  nothing  to  gain  their 
ends.  The  Puritans  were  Protestants  who,  like  John  Calvin  of 
Geneva,  and  John  Knox  of  Edinburgh,  were  bent  on  cleansing  or 
purifying  the  reformed  faith  from  every  vestige  of  Romanism. 
Many  of  them  were  what  the  rack  and  the  stake  had  naturally 
made  them,  —  hard,  fearless,  narrow,  bitter.  In  Scotland  they 
had  got  entire  possession  of  the  government;  in  England  they 
were  steadily  gaining  ground.  They  were  ready  to  recognize  the 
queen  as  head  of  the  state  church,  they  even  wished  that  all  per- 

1  After  Elizabeth,  Mary  stood  next  in  order  of  succession.  See  Table,  Paragraph 
No.  421. 


2IO  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

sons  should  be  compelled  to  worship  as  the  government  pre- 
scribed, but  they  protested  against  such  a  church  as  Elizabeth 
and  the  bishops  then  maintained. 

431.  The  Queen's  Choice  of  Counsellors.  —  Her  policy  from  the 
beginning  was  one  of  compromise.     In  order  to  conciliate  the 
Catholic  party,  she  retained  eleven  of  her  sister  Mary's  counsellors, 
but  added  to  them  Sir  William  Cecil  (Lord  Burleigh),  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  and,  later,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  with  others  who  were 
favorable  to  the  reformed  faith. 

On  his  appointment,  Elizabeth  said  to  Cecil,  "  This  judgment  I 
have  of  you,  that  you  will  not  be  corrupted  with  any  gifts,  that  you 
will  be  faithful  to  the  state,  and  that  without  respect  to  my  private 
will  you  will  give  me  that  counsel  which  you  think  best."  Cecil 
served  the  queen  until  his  death,  forty  years  afterward.  The 
almost  implicit  obedience  with  which  Elizabeth  followed  his  advice 
sufficiently  proves  that  he  was  the  real  power  not  only  behind,  but 
generally  above,  the  throne. 

432.  The  Coronation. — The  bishops  were  Roman  Catholic, 
and  Elizabeth  found  it  difficult  to  get  one  to  perform  the  corona- 
tion services.      At  length  the  Bishop  of  Carlisle  consented,  but 
only  on  condition  that  the  queen  should  take  the  ancient  form  of 
coronation  oath,  by  which  she  virtually  bound  herself  to  support 
the  Church  of  Rome.1     To  this  Elizabeth  agreed,  and  having 
consulted  her  astrologer,  Dr.  Dee,  to  fix  a  lucky  day  for  the  cere- 
mony, she  was  crowned  by  his  advice  on  Sunday,  Jan.  15,  1558. 

433.  Changes  in  the  Church  Service;  Religious  Legislation. 

— The  late  Queen  Mary,  besides  having  repealed  the  legislation  of 
the  two  preceding  reigns,  in  so  far  as  it  was  opposed  to  her  own 
religious  convictions,  had  restored  the  Roman  Catholic  Latin 
Prayer-Book.  At  Elizabeth's  coronation,  a  petition  was  presented 

1  By  this  oath,  every  English  sovereign  from  William  the  Conqueror  to  Elizabeth, 
and  even  as  late  as  James  II.,  with  the  single  exception  of  Edward  VI.,  swore  to 
"preserve  religion  in  the  same  state  as  did  Edward  the  Confessor."  This  was 
changed  to  support  Protestantism  in  1688. 


POLITICAL   REACTION.  211 

stating  that  it  was  the  custom  to  release  a  certain  number  of  pris- 
oners on  such  occasions.  The  petitioners,  therefore,  begged  her 
majesty  to  set  at  liberty  the  four  evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
and  John,  and  also  the  apostle  Paul,  who  had  been  for  some  time 
shut  up  in  a  strange  language.  The  English  Service-Book,  with 
some  slight  changes,  was  accordingly  reinstated. 

A  bill  was  soon  after  passed  requiring  all  clergymen,  under 
penalty  of  imprisonment  for  life,  to  use  it,  and  it  only.  The  same 
act  imposed  a  heavy  fine  on  all  persons  who  failed  to  attend  the 
Church  of  England  on  Sundays  or  holidays.  At  that  time  church 
and  state  were  supposed  to  be  inseparable.  No  country  in  Europe, 
not  even  Protestant  Germany,  could  then  conceive  the  idea  of 
their  existing  apart.  Whoever,  therefore,  refused  to  sustain  the 
established  form  of  worship  was  looked  upon  as  a  rebel  against 
the  government.  To  try  such  rebels,  a  special  court  was  organized 
by  Elizabeth,  called  the  High  Commission  Court.1  By  it  many 
Catholics  were  tortured  and  imprisoned  for  persisting  in  their 
allegiance  to  the  Pope.  About  two  hundred  priests  and  Jesuits 
were  put  to  death.  A  number  of  Puritans,  also,  were  executed  for 
seditious  publications,  while  others  were  imprisoned  or  banished. 

434.  Act  of  Supremacy.  —  No  sooner  was  the  queen's  acces- 
sion announced  to  the  Pope,  than  he  declared  her  illegitimate,  and 
ordered  her  to  lay  aside  her  crown  and  submit  herself  entirely  to 
his  guidance.  Such  a  demand  was  a  signal  for  battle.  However 
much  attached  the  larger  part  of  the  nation,  especially  the  country 
people,  may  have  been  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  yet  they 
intended  to  support  the  queen.  The  temper  of  Parliament  mani- 
fested itself  in  the  immediate  re-enactment  of  the  Act  of  Suprem- 
acy. It  was  essentially  the  same,  "  though  with  its  edge  a  little 
blunted,"  as  that  which,  under  Henry,  had  freed  England  from 
the  dominion  of  Rome. 

To  this  act,  every  member  of  the   House  of  Commons  was 

1  High  Commission  Court:  so  called,  because  originally  certain  church  dignita- 
ries were  appointed  commissioners  to  inquire  into  heresies  and  kindred  matters. 


212  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

obliged  to  subscribe ;  thus  all  Catholics  were  excluded  from  among 
them.  The  Lords,  however,  not  being  an  elective  body,  were 
excused  from  the  obligation. 

435.  The  Thirty-nine  Articles;  the  Queen's  Religion.  —  Half 
a  year  later  the  creed  of  the  English  church,  which  had  been  first 
formulated  under  Edward  VI.,  was  revised  and  reduced  to  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  which  constitute  it  at  the  present  time.     But 
the  real  value  of  the  religious  revolution  which  was  taking  place 
did  not  lie  in  the  substitution  of  one  creed  for  another,  but  in  the 
new  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  the  new  freedom  of  thought  which  that 
change  awakened. 

As  for  Elizabeth  herself,  she  seems  to  have  had  no  deep  and 
abiding  convictions  on  these  matters.  Her  tendency  was  undoubt- 
edly towards  Protestantism,  but  to  the  end  of  her  life  she  kept  up 
some  Catholic  forms.  A  crucifix,  with  lighted  candles  in  front 
of  it,  hung  in  her  private  chapel,  before  which  she  prayed  to  the 
Virgin  as  fervently  as  her  sister  Mary  had  ever  done. 

436.  The  Nation  halting  between  Two  Opinions.  —  In  this 
double  course  she  represented  the  majority  of  the  nation,  which 
hesitated  about  committing  itself  fully  to  either  side.     Men  were 
not  wanting  who  were  ready  to  lay  down  their  lives  for  conscience' 
sake,  but  they  were  by  no  means  numerous.     Many  sympathized 
at  heart  with  the  notorious  Vicar  of  Bray,  who  kept  his  pulpit 
under  the  whole  or  some  part  of  the  successive  reigns  of  Henry, 
Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  changing  his  theology  with  each 
change  of  rule.     When  taunted  as  a  turncoat,  he  replied,  "  Not 
so,  for  I  have  always  been  true  to  my  principles,  which  are  to  live 
and  die  Vicar  of  Bray."  *      Though  there  was  nothing  morally 
noble  in  such  halting  between  two  opinions,  and  facing  both  ways, 
yet  it  saved  England  for  the  time  from  that  worst  of  all  calamities, 

1  "  For  this  as  law  I  will  maintain 

Until  my  dying  day,  sir, 
That  whatsoever  king  shall  reign, 
I'll  be  Vicar  of  Bray,  sir." 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  213 

a  religious  civil  war,  such  as  rent  France  in  pieces,  drenched  her 
fair  fields  with  the  blood  of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  split  Ger- 
many and  Italy  into  petty  states,  and  ended  in  Spain  in  the  triumph 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  intellectual  death.1 

437.  The  Question  of  the  Queen's  Marriage.  —  Elizabeth 
showed  the  same  tact  with  regard  to  marriage  that  she  did  with 
regard  to  religion.  Her  first  Parliament,  realizing  that  the  welfare 
of  the  country  depended  largely  on  whom  the  queen  should  marry, 
begged  her  to  consider  the  question  of  taking  a  husband.  Her 
reply  was  that  she  had  resolved  to  live  and  die  a  maiden  queen. 
When  further  pressed,  she  returned  answers  that,  like  the  ancient 
oracles,  might  be  interpreted  either  way.  The  truth  was,  that 
Elizabeth  saw  the  difficulty  of  her  position  better  than  any  one 
else.  The  choice  of  her  heart  at  that  time  would  have  been  the 
Protestant  Earl  of  Leicester,  but  she  knew  that  to  take  him  as 
consort  would  be  to  incur  the  enmity  of  the  great  Catholic  powers 
of  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  if  she  accepted  a  Romanist,  she 
would  inevitably  alienate  a  large  and  influential  number  of  her  own 
subjects.  In  this  dilemma  she  resolved  to  keep  both  sides  in  a 
state  of  hopeful  expectation.  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  had  married 
her  sister  Mary,  made  overtures  to  Elizabeth.  She  kept  him 
waiting  in  uncertainty  until  at  last  his  ambassador  lost  all  patience, 
and  declared  that  the  queen  was  possessed  with  ten  thousand 
devils.  Later,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  a  son  of  Henry  II.  of  France, 
proposed.  He  was  favorably  received,  but  the  country  became  so 
alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  having  a  Catholic  king,  that  Stubbs,  a 
Puritan  lawyer,  published  a  coarse  and  violent  pamphlet  denounc- 
ing the  marriage.2  For  this  attack  his  right  hand  was  cut  off;  as 
it  fell,  says  an  eye-witness,3  he  seized  his  hat  with  the  other  hand, 
and  waved  it,  shouting,  "  God  save  Queen  Elizabeth  !  "  That  act 

1  Gardiner's  History  of  England. 

2  Stubbs's  pamphlet  was  entitled  "  The  Discovery  of  the  Gaping  Gulf,  wherein 
England  is  likely  to  be  swallowed  up  by  another  French  marriage,  unless  the  Lords 
forbid  the  bans  by  letting  her  see  the  sin  and  punishment  thereof." 

3  Camden's  Annals,  1581. 


214  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

was  an  index  to  the  popular  feeling.  Men  stood  by  the  crown 
even  when  they  condemned  its  policy,  determined,  at  all  hazards, 
to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  nation. 

438.  The  Queen  a  Coquette.  —  During  all  this  time  the  court 
buzzed  with  whispered  scandals.    Elizabeth  was  by  nature  a  con- 
firmed coquette.     The  Earl  of  Leicester,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  were  by  turns  her  favorites.    Over  her  relations 
with  the  first  there  hangs  the  terrible  shadow  of  the  murder  of  his 
wife,  the  beautiful  Amy  Robsart.1     Her  vanity  was  as  insatiable  as 
it  was  ludicrous.     She  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  any  one 
to  sell  her  picture,  lest  it  should  fail  to  do  her  justice.     She  was 
greedy  of  flattery  even  when  long  past  sixty,  and  there  was  a 
sting  of  truth  in  the  letter  which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  wrote  her, 
saying,  "  Your  aversion  to  marriage  proceeds  from  your  not  wish- 
ing to  lose  the  liberty  of  compelling  people  to  make  love  to  you." 

439.  Violence  of  Temper;  Crooked  Policy. — In  temper,  Eliza- 
beth was  arbitrary,  fickle,  and  passionate.     When  her  blood  was 
up,  she  would  swear  like  a  trooper,  spit  on  a  courtier's  new  velvet 
suit,  beat  her  maids  of  honor,  and  box  Essex's  ears.     She  wrote 
abusive,  and  even  profane,  letters  to  high  church  dignitaries,  and 
openly  insulted  the  wife  of  Archbishop  Parker,  because  she  did  not 
believe  in  a  married  clergy. 

The  age  in  which  Elizabeth  lived  was  pre-eminently  one  of  craft 
and  intrigue.  The  kings  of  that  day  endeavored  to  get  by  fraud 
what  their  less  polished  predecessors  got  by  force.  At  this  game 
of  double  dealing  Elizabeth  had  few  equals  and  no  superior.  So 
profound  was  her  dissimulation  that  her  most  confidential  ad- 
visers never  felt  quite  sure  that  she  was  not  deceiving  them.  In 
her  diplomatic  relations  she  never  hesitated  at  a  lie  if  it  would 
serve  her  purpose,  and  when  the  falsehood  was  discovered,  she 
always  had  another  and  more  plausible  one  ready  to  take  its  place. 

440.  Her  Knowledge  of  Men;  the  Monopolies. — The  queen's 
real  ability  lay  in  her  instinctive  perception  of  the  needs  of  the 

1  See  the  De  Quadra  Letter  in  Fronde's  England. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  21$ 

age,  and  in  her  power  of  self-adjustment  to  them.  Elizabeth 
never  made  public  opinion,  but  watched  it  and  followed  it.  She 
knew  an  able  man  at  sight,  and  had  the  happy  faculty  of  at- 
taching such  men  to  her  service.  By  nature  she  was  both  irreso- 
lute and  impulsive ;  but  her  sense  was  good  and  her  judgment 
clear.  She  knew  when  she  was  well  advised,  and  although  she 
fumed  and  blustered,  she  yielded. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  next  best  thing  to  having  a  good  rule 
is  to  know  when  to  break  it.  Elizabeth  knew  when.  No  matter 
how  obstinate  she  was,  she  saw  the  point  where  obstinacy  became 
dangerous.  In  order  to  enrich  Raleigh  and  her  numerous  other 
favorites,  she  granted  them  the  exclusive  right  to  deal  in  certain 
articles.  These  privileges  were  called  "monopolies."  They  finally 
came  to  comprise  almost  everything  that  could  be  bought  or  sold, 
from  French  wines  to  second-hand  shoes.  The  effect  was  to  raise 
prices  so  as  to  make  even  the  common  necessaries  of  life  exces- 
sively dear.  A  great  outcry  finally  arose  ;  Parliament  requested 
the  queen  to  abolish  the  "  monopolies  "  ;  she  hesitated,  but  when 
she  saw  their  determined  attitude  she  gracefully  granted  the 
petition. 

441.  The  Adulation  of  the  Court.  —  No  English  sovereign  was 
so  popular  or  so  praised.  The  great  writers  and  the  great  men  of 
that  day  vied  with  each  other  in  their  compliments  to  her  beauty, 
her  wisdom,  and  her  wit.  She  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  splendor, 
of  pleasure,  and  of  adulation.  Her  reign  was  full  of  pageants, 
progresses,1  and  feasts,  like  those  which  Scott  describes  in  his 
delightful  novel,  "  Kenilworth."  Spenser  composed  his  poern,  the 
"  Faerie  Queen,"  as  he  said,  to  extol  "  the  glorious  person  of  our 
sovereign  queen,"  whom  he  blasphemously  compared  to  the  God- 
head. Shakespeare  is  reported  to  have  written  a  play2  for  her 
amusement,  and  in  his  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  "  he  addresses 
her  as  the  "  fair  vestal  in  the  West."  The  common  people  were 

1  Progresses :  state-journeys  made  with  great  pomp  and  splendor. 

2  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor. 


2l6  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

equally  full  of  enthusiasm,  and  loved  to  sing  and  shout  the  praises 
of  their  "  good  Queen  Bess."  After  her  death  at  Richmond,  when 
her  body  was  being  conveyed  down  the  Thames  to  Westminster, 
an  extravagant  eulogist  declared  that  the  very  fishes  that  followed 
the  funeral  barge  "  wept  out  their  eyes  and  swam  blind  after  ! " 

442.  Grandeur  of  the  Age ;  More's  "Utopia."  —  The  reign  of 
Elizabeth  was,  in  fact,  Europe's  grandest  age.     It  was  a  time  when 
everything  was  bursting  into  life  and  color.     The  world  had  sud- 
denly grown  larger ;  it  had  opened  toward  the  East  in  the  revival 
of  classical  learning ;   it  had  opened  toward  the  West,  and  dis- 
closed a  continent  of  unknown  extent  and  unimaginable  resources. 

Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  America,  Sir  Thomas  More 
wrote  a  remarkable  work  of  fiction,  in  Latin,  called  "  Utopia " l 
(the  Land  of  Nowhere).  In  it  he  pictured  an  ideal  common- 
wealth, where  all  men  were  equal ;  where  none  were  poor ;  where 
perpetual  peace  prevailed ;  where  there  was  absolute  freedom  of 
thought ;  where  all  were  contented  and  happy.  It  was,  in  fact, 
the  "  Golden  Age  "  come  back  to  earth  again.  Such  a  book,  now 
translated  into  English,  suited  such  a  time,  for  Elizabeth's  reign 
was  one  of  adventure,  of  poetry,  of  luxury,  of  rapidly  increasing 
wealth.  When  men  looked  across  the  Atlantic,  their  imaginations 
were  stimulated,  and  the  most  extravagant  hopes  did  not  appear 
too  good  to  be  true.  Courtiers  and  adventurers  dreamed  of  foun- 
tains of  youth  in  Florida,  of  silver  mines  in  Brazil,  of  rivers  in 
Virginia  whose  pebbles  were  precious  stones.2  Thus  all  were 
dazzled  with  visions  of  sudden  riches  and  renewed  life. 

443.  Change  in  Mode  of  Life.  —  England,  too,  was  undergoing 
transformation.     Once,  a  nobleman's  residence  had  been  simply  a 

1  "Utopia"  was  published  in  Latin  about  1518.     It  was  first  translated  into 
English  in  1551. 

2  "  Why,  man,  all  their  dripping-pans   [in  Virginia]  are  pure  gould ;  .  .  .  all 
the  prisoners  they  take  are  feterd  in  gold ;    and  for  rubies  and  diamonds,  they  goe 
forth  on  holydayes  and  gather  'hem  by  the  sea-shore,  to  hang  on  their  children's 
coates."  —  Eastward  Hoe,  a  play  by  John  Marston  and  others,  "  as  it  was  playd  in 
the  Black-friers  [Theatre]  by  the  Children  of  her  Majesties  Revels."  (1603  ?) 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  217 

square  stone  fortress,  built  for  safety  only ;  but  now  that  the  land 
was  at  peace  and  the  old  feudal  barons  destroyed,  there  was  no 
need  of  such  precaution.  Men  were  no  longer  content  to  live 
shut  up  in  sombre  strongholds,  surrounded  with  moats  of  stagnant 
water,  or  in  wretched  hovels,  where  the  smoke  curled  around  the 
rafters  for  want  of  chimneys  by  which  to  escape,  while  the  wind 
whistled  through  the  unglazed  latticed  windows.  Mansions  and 
manor-houses  like  Hatfield,  Knowle,  and  the  "  Bracebridge  Hall " 
of  Washington  Irving,1  rose  instead  of  castles,  and  hospitality,  not 
exclusion,  became  the  prevailing  custom.  The  introduction  of 
chimneys  brought  the  cheery  comfort  of  the  English  fireside,  while 
among  the  wealthy,  carpets,2  tapestry,  and  silver  plate  took  the 
place  of  floors  strewed  with  rushes,  of  bare  walls,  and  of  tables 
covered  with  pewter  or  wooden  dishes. 

An  old  writer,  lamenting  these  innovations,  says :  "  When  our 
houses  were  built  of  willow,  then  we  had  oaken  men ;  but,  now 
that  our  houses  are  made  of  oak,  our  men  have  not  only  become 
willow,  but  many  are  altogether  of  straw,  which  is  a  sore  affliction." 

444.  An  Age  of  Adventure  and  of  Daring. — But  they  were 
not  all  of  straw,  for  that  was  a  period  of  daring  enterprise. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  planted  the  first  English  colony,  which  the 
maiden  queen  named  Virginia,  in  honor  of  herself.  It  proved 
unsuccessful,  but  he  said,  "  I  shall  live  to  see  it  an  English  nation 
yet " ;  and  he  did.  Frobisher  explored  the  coasts  of  Labrador 
and  Greenland.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  into  the  Pacific,  spent  a 
winter  in  or  near  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco,  and  ended  his 
voyage  by  circumnavigating  the  globe.3  In  the  East,  London  mer- 
chants had  founded  the  East  India  Company,  the  beginning  of 
English  dominion  in  Asia ;  while  in  Holland,  Sir  Philip  Sydney 
gave  his  life-blood  for  the  cause  of  Protestantism. 

1  Aston  Hall,  in  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham,  is  the  original  of  Irving's  "  Brace- 
bridge  Hall." 

2  Used  at  first  as  table  covers  chiefly. 
'  See  Map  No.  12,  page  218. 


2l8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

445.  Literature.  —  It  was  an  age,  too,  not  only  of  brave  deeds 
but  of  high  thoughts.      Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Jonson  were 
making  Engli:h  literature  the  noblest  of  all  literatures.     Francis 
Bacon,  son  of  Sir  Nicholas   Bacon,  of  Elizabeth's  council,  was 
giving  a  wholly  different  direction  to  education,  by  teaching  men 
in  his  new  philos  phy,  that  in  order  to  use  the  forces  of  nature 
they  must  learn  by  observation  and  experiment  to  know  nature  her- 
self;  "for,"  said  he,  "knowledge  is  power." 

446.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  claims  the  Crown.  —  For  England 
it  was  also  an  age  of  great  and  constant  peril.     Elizabeth's  entire 
reign  was  undermined  with  plots  against  her  life  and  against  the 
life  of  the  Protestant  faith.     No  sooner  was  one  conspiracy  de- 
tected and  suppressed,  than  a  new  one  sprang  up.     Perhaps  the 
most  formidable  of  these  was  the  effort  which  Mary  Stuart  (Queen 
of  Scots)  made  to  supplant  her  English  rival.     Shortly  after  Eliza- 
beth's accession,  Mary's  husband,  the  king  of  France,  died.     She 
returned  to  Scotland  and  there  assumed  the  Scottish  crown,  at  the 
same  time  asserting  her  right  to  the  English  throne.1 

447.  Mary  marries  Darnley ;  his  Murder.  —  A  few  years  later 
she  married  Lord  Darnley,  who  became  jealous  of  Mary's  Italian 
private  secretary,  Rizzio,  and,  with  the  aid  of  accomplices,  seized 
him  in  her  presence,  dragged  him  into  an  ante-chamber,  and  there 
stabbed  him. 

The  next  year  Darnley  was  murdered.  It  was  believed  that 
Mary  and  the  Earl  of  Bothwell,  whom  she  soon  after  married,  were 
guilty  of  the  crime.  The  people  rose  and  cast  her  into  prison, 
and  forced  her  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  her  infant  son,  James  VI. 

448.  Mary  escapes  to  England;   Plots  against  Elizabeth  and 
Protestantism.  —  Mary  escaped  and  fled  to  England.     Elizabeth, 
fearing  she  might  pass  over  to  France  and  stir  up  war,  confined 

1  See  Table,  Paragraph  No.  421.  Mary's  claim  was  based  on  the  fact  that  the 
Pope  had  never  recognized  Henry  VIII.'s  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn,  Elizabeth's 
mother,  as  lawful. 


No.  12. 


To  face  page  218. 


Showing  the  English  discoveries  in  America  in  the  igth,  i6th  and  iyth  centuries, 
with  a  part  of  Drake's  voyage  round  the  globe  in  1577-1579. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  2 19 

her  in  Bolton  Castle.1    During  her  imprisonment  there  and  else- 
where she  became  implicated  in  a  plot  for  assassinating  the  Eng 
lish  queen,  and  seizing  the  reins  of  government  in  behalf  of  herseli 
and  the  Jesuits. 

It  was  a  time  when  the  Protestant  faith  seemed  everywhere 
marked  for  destruction.  In  France,  evil  counsellors  had  induced 
the  king  to  order  a  massacre  of  the  Reformers,  and  on  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Day  thousands  were  slain.  The  Pope,  misinformed  in 
the  matter,  ordered  a  solemn  thanksgiving  for  the  slaughter,  and 
struck  a  gold  medal  to  commemorate  it.*  Philip  of  Spain,  whose 
cold,  impassive  face  scarcely  ever  relaxed  into  a  smile,  now  laughed 
outright.  Still  more  recently,  William  the  Silent,  who  had  driven 
out  the  Catholics  from  a  part  of  the  Netherlands,2  had  been  assas- 
sinated by  a  Jesuit  fanatic. 

449.  Elizabeth  beheads  Mary.  —  Under  these  circumstances, 
Elizabeth,  aroused  to  a  sense  of  her  danger,  reluctantly  signed  the 
Scottish  queen:s  death  warrant,  and  Mary,  after  nineteen  years' 
imprisonment,  was  beheaded  at  Fotheringay  Castle.3 

\s  soon  as  the  news  of  her  execution  was  brought  to  the  queen, 
she  became  alarmed  at  the  political  consequences  the  act  might 
have  in  Europe.  With  her  usual  duplicity  she  bitterly  upbraided 
the  minister  who  had  advised  it,  and  throwing  Davidson,  her  sec- 
retary, into  the  Tower,  fined  him  ;£  10,000,  the  payment  of  which 
reduced  him  to  beggary.4  Not  satisfied  with  this,  Elizabeth  even 
had  the  effrontery  to  write  a  letter  of  condolence  to  Mary's  son 
(James  VI.)  declaring  that  his  mother  had  been  beheaded  by 
mistake  !  Yet  facts  prove  that  not  only  had  Elizabeth  determined 
to  put  Mary  to  death,  —  a  measure  whose  justice  is  still  vehe- 
mently disputed,  —  but  she  had  suggested  to  her  keeper  that  it 
might  be  expedient  to  have  her  privately  murdered. 

1  Bolton  Castle,  Yorkshire. 

2  Netherlands,  or  Low  Countries :  now  represented  in  great  part  by  Belgians 
and  Holland.  *  See  The  Leading  Facts  of  French  History. 

*  Fotheringay  Castle,  Northamptonshire,  demolished  by  James  I. 

*  ^10,000 :  a  sum  probably  equal  to  more  than  $300,000  now, 


220  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

450.  The  Spanish.  Armada.  —  Mary  was  hardly  under  ground 
when  a  new  and  greater  danger  threatened  the  country.     At  her 
death,  the  Scottish  queen,  disgusted  with  her  mean-spirited  son 
James,1  left  her  claim  to  the  English  throne  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  was  then  the  most  powerful  sovereign  in  Europe,  ruling  over 
a  territory  equal  to  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  its  greatest  ex- 
tent.    Philip  resolved  to  invade  England,  conquer  it,  annex  it  to 
his  own  possessions,  and  restore  the  religion  of  Rome.    To  accom- 
plish this,  he  began  fitting  out  the  "  Invincible  Armada," 2  an 
immense  fleet,  intended  to  carry  20,000  soldiers,  and  to  receive  on 
its  way  re-enforcements  of  30,000  more  from  the  Spanish  army  in 
the  Netherlands. 

451.  Drake's  Expedition ;  Sailing  of  the  Armada ;  Elizabeth 
at  Tilbury.  —  Sir  Francis  Drake  determined  to  put  a  check  to 
Philip's  preparations.     He  heard  that  the  enemy's  fleet  was  gath- 
ered at  Cadiz.     He  sailed  there,  and  in  spite  of  all  opposition 
effectually  "  singed  the  Spanish  king's  beard,"  as  he  said,  by  burn- 
ing and  otherwise  destroying  more  than  a  hundred  ships.    This  so 
crippled  the  expedition  that  it  had  to  be  given  up  for  that  year, 
but  the  next  summer  a  vast  armament  set  sail.     It  consisted  of  six 
squadrons  carrying  2500  cannon,  and  having  on  board,  it  is  said, 
shackles  and  instruments  of  torture  to  bind  and  punish  the  English 
heretics. 

The  impending  peril  thoroughly  aroused  England.  All  parties, 
both  Catholics  and  Protestants,  rose  and  joined  in  the  defence  of 
their  country  and  their  queen.  An  army  of  16,000  men  under  the 
Earl  of  Leicester  gathered  at  Tilbury,3  on  the  Thames,  to  protect 
London.  Elizabeth  reviewed  the  troops,  saying  with  true  Tudor 
spirit,  "  Though  I  have  but  the  feeble  body  of  a  woman,  I  have 
the  heart  of  a  king,  and  of  a  king  of  England,  too." 

1  James  had  deserted  his  mother,  and  accepted  a  pension  from  Elizabeth. 

2  Armada :  an  armed  fleet. 

8  Tilbury :  a  fort  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  about  twenty  miles  below  Lon- 
don. Some  authorities  make  this  review  at  Tilbury  subsequent  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Armacla, 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  221 

452.  The  Battle. — The  English  sea- forces  under  Howard,  a 
Catholic,  as  admiral,  and  Drake,  second  in  command,  were  assem- 
bled at  Plymouth,  watching  for  the  enemy.    When  the  long-looked- 
for  fleet  came  in  sight,  beacon  fires  were  lighted  on  the  hills  to 
give  the  alarm. 

"  For  swift  to  east  and  swift  to  west  the  warning  radiance  spread; 
High  on  St.  Michael's  mount  it  shone,  it  shone  on  Beachy  Head. 
Far  o'er  the  deep  the  Spaniard  sees  along  each  southern  shire, 
Cape  beyond  cape  in  endless  range  those  twinkling  points  of  fire."  ' 

The  enemy's  ships  moved  steadily  towards  the  coast  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent  seven  miles  in  length ;  but  Howard  and  Drake  were 
ready  to  receive  them.  With  their  fast-sailing  cruisers  they  sailed 
around  the  unwieldy  Spanish  war-ships,  firing  four  shots  to  their 
one,  and  "harassing  them  as  a  swarm  of  wasps  would  a  bear." 
Several  of  the  enemy's  vessels  were  captured,  and  one  blown  up. 
At  last  the  commander  thought  best  to  make  for  Calais  to  repair 
damages  and  take  a  fresh  start.  The  English  followed.  As  soon 
as  night  came  on,  Drake  sent  eight  blazing  fire-ships  to  drift  down 
among  the  Armada  as  it  lay  at  anchor.  Thoroughly  alarmed  at 
the  prospect  of  being  burned  where  they  lay,  the  Spaniards  cut 
their  cables  and  made  sail  for  the  north. 

453.  Pursuit  and  Destruction  of  the  Armada.  —  They  were 
hotly  pursued  by  the  English,  who,  having  lost  but  a  single  vessel 
in  the  fight,  might  have  cut  them  to  pieces,  had  not  the  queen's 
suicidal  economy  stinted  them  both  in  powder  and  provisions.2 
Meanwhile  the  Spanish  forces  kept  on.     The  wind  increased  to  a 
gale,  the  gale  to  a  furious  storm.     As  in  such  weather  the  Armada 
could  not  turn  back,  the  commander  attempted  to  go  around 
Scotland   and   return   home  that  way;   but  ship  after  ship  was 
driven  ashore  and  wrecked  on  the  wild  and  rocky  coast.     On  one 
strand,  less  than  five  miles  long,  over  a  thousand  corpses  were 

1  Macaulay,  The  Armada. 

2  The  English  crews  suffered  so  much  for  want  of  food  through  Elizabeth's  parsi- 
mony, that  thousands  of  them  came  home  from  the  great  victory  only  to  die. 


222  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

counted.  Those  who  escaped  the  waves  met  death  by  the  hands 
of  the  inhabitants.  Eventually,  only  about  a  third  of  the  fleet,  half 
manned  by  crews  stricken  by  pestilence  and  death,  succeeded  in 
reaching  Spain.  Thus  ended  Philip's  boasted  attack  on  England. 
When  all  was  over,  Elizabeth  went  in  state  to  St.  Paul's  to  offei 
thanks  for  the  victory.  It  was  afterward  commemorated  by  a 
medal  which  the  queen  caused  to  be  struck,  bearing  this  inscrip- 
tion :  "  God  blew  with  his  winds,  and  they  were  scattered." 

454.  Insurrection  in  Ireland.  —  A  few  years  later,  a  terrible 
rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland.     From  its  partial  conquest  in  the 
time  of  Henry  II.,  the  condition  of  that  island  continued  to  be 
deplorable.      First,  the  chiefs  of  the  native  tribes  fought  con- 
stantly among  themselves ;  next,  the  English  attempted  to  force 
the  Protestant  religion  upon  a  people  who  detested  it ;  lastly,  the 
greed  and  misgovernment  of  the  rulers  put  a  climax  to  these  mis- 
eries, so  that  the  country  became,  as  Raleigh  said,  "  a  common- 
wealth of  common  woe."    Under  Elizabeth  a  war  of  extermination 
began,  so  merciless  that  the  queen  herself  declared  that  if  the  work 
of  destruction  went  on  much  longer,  "she  should  have  nothing  left 
but  ashes  and  corpses  to  rule  over."    Then,  but  not  till  then,  the 
starving  remnant  of  the  people  submitted,  and  England  gained  a 
barren  victory  which  has  ever  since  carried  with  it  its  own  curse. 

455.  The  First  Poor  Law.  —  In  1601  the  first  effective  English 
poor  law  was  passed.     It  required  each  parish  to  make  provision 
for  such  paupers  as  were  unable  to  work,  while  the  able-bodied 
were  compelled  to  labor  for  their  own  support.     This  measure  re- 
lieved much  of  the  distress  which  had  prevailed  during  the  two 
previous  reigns,  and  forms  the  basis  of  the  law  in  force  at  the 
present  time. 

456.  Elizabeth's  Death. — The  death  of  the  great  queen,  in 
1603,  was  as  sad  as  her  life  had  been  brilliant.      Her  favorite, 
Essex,  Shakespeare's  intimate  friend,  had  been  beheaded  for  an 
attempted  rebellion  against  her  power.     From  that  time  she  grew, 
as  she  said,  "  heavy-hearted."     Her  old  friends  and  counsellors 


POLITICAL   REACTION.  22$ 

were  dead,  her  people  no  longer  welcomed  her  with  their  former 
enthusiasm;  treason  had  grown  so  common  that  Hentzner,  a 
German  traveller  in  England,  said  that  he  counted  three  hundred 
heads  of  persons,  who  had  suffered  death  for  this  crime,  exposed 
on  London  Bridge.  Elizabeth  felt  that  her  sun  was  nearly  set; 
gradually  her  strength  declined ;  she  ceased  to  leave  her  palace, 
and  sat  muttering  to  herself  all  day  long, "  Mortua,  sed  non  sepulta  ! " 
"  Dead,  but  not  buried  ! "  At  length  she  lay  propped  up  on  cush- 
ions on  the  floor,1  "  tired,"  as  she  said,  "  of  reigning,  and  tired  of 
life."  In  that  sullen  mood  she  departed  to  join  that  silent  majority 
whose  realm  under  earth  is  bounded  by  the  sides  of  the  grave. 
"  Four  days  afterward,"  says  a  writer  of  that  time,  "  she  was  for- 
gotten." One  may  see  her  tomb,  with  her  full-length,  recumbent 
effigy,  in  the  north  aisle  of  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  and  in  the  oppo- 
site aisle  the  tomb  and  effigy  of  her  old  rival  and  enemy,  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  The  sculptured  features  of  both  look  placid. 
"  After  life's  fitful  fever  they  sleep  well." 

457.  Summary. — The  Elizabethan  period  was  in  every  respect 
remarkable.  It  was  great  in  its  men  of  thought,  and  equally  great 
in  its  men  of  action.  It  was  greatest,  however,  in  its  successful 
resistance  to  the  armed  hand  of  religious  oppression.  The  defeat 
of  the  Armada  gave  renewed  courage  to  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, not  only  in  England,  but  in  every  Protestant  country  in 
Europe.  It  meant  that  a  movement  had  begun  which,  though  it 
might  be  temporarily  hindered,  would  at  last  secure  to  all  civi- 
lized countries  the  right  of  private  judgment  and  of  liberty  of 
conscience. 


See  Delaroche's  fine  picture, "  The  Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth," 


224  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  TUDOR  PERIOD.  — 1485-1603. 

I  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV. 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART.  —  V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE.  —  VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

458.  Absolutism  of  the  Crown ;  Free  Trade ;  the  Post-Office. 

—  During  a  great  part  of  the  Tudor  period  the  power  of  the  crown  was 
well-nigh  absolute.  Four  causes  contributed  to  this :  I .  The  destruc- 
tion of  a  very  large  part  of  the  feudal  nobility  by  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  -,1  2.  The  removal  of  many  of  the  higher  clergy  from  the  House 
of  Lords ; z  3.  The  creation  of  a  new  nobility  dependent  on  the  king ; 
4.  The  desire  of  the  great  body  of  the  people  for  "  peace  at  any  price." 

Under  Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth  the  courts  of  Star-Chamber  and 
High  Commission  exercised  arbitrary  power,  and  often  inflicted  cruel 
punishments  for  offences  against  the  government,  and  for  heresy  or  the 
denial  of  the  religious  supremacy  of  the  sovereign. 

Henry  VII.  established  a  treaty  of  free  trade,  called  the  "Great  Inter- 
course," between  England  and  the  Netherlands.  Under  Elizabeth  the 
first  postmaster-general  entered  upon  his  duties,  though  the  post-office 
was  not  fully  established  until  the  reign  of  her  successor. 

RELIGION. 

459.  Establishment  of  the  Protestant  Church  of  England.  — 

Henry  VIII.  suppressed  the  Roman  Catholic  monasteries,  seized  their 
property,  and  ended  by  declaring  the  Church  of  England  independent 

1  In  the  last  Parliament  before  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1454)  there  were  53 
temporal  peers;  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  (1485)  there  were 
only  29. 

2  Out  of  a  total  ot  barely  go  peers,  Henry  VIII.,  by  the  suppression  of  the 
monasteries,  removed  upwards  of  36  abbots  and  nriors.    He.  however,  added  five 
new  bishops,  which  made  the  House  of  Lords  number  about  59. 


POLITICAL    REACTION.  225 

of  the  Pope.  Thenceforth,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Head  of  the  National 
Church.  Under  Edward  VI.  Protestantism  was  established  by  law. 
Mary  led  a  reaction  in  favor  of  Romanism,  but  her  successor,  Elizabeth, 
reinstated  the  Protestant  form  of  worship.  Under  Elizabeth  the  Puri- 
tans demanded  that  the  national  church  be  purified  from  all  Romish 
forms  and  doctrines.  Severe  laws  were  passed  under  Elizabeth  for  the 
punishment  of  both  Catholics  and  Puritans,  all  persons  being  required 
to  conform  to  the  Church  of  England. 

MILITARY   AFFAIRS. 

460.  Arms  and  Armor;   the  Navy.  —  Though  gunpowder  had 
been  in  use  for  two  centuries,  yet  full  suits  of  armor  were  still  worn 
during  a  great  part  of  the  period.     An  improved  match-lock  gun,  with 
the  pistol,  an  Italian  invention,  and  heavy  cannon  were  introduced. 
Until  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  foot-soldiers  continued  to  be  armed 
with  the   long-bow;   but  under  Edward  VI.  that  weapon  was  super- 
seded by  firearms.     The  principal  wars  of  the  period  were  with  Scot- 
land, France,  and  Spain,  the  last  being  by  far  the  most  important,  and 
ending  with  the  destruction  of  the  Armada. 

Henry  VIII.  established  a  permanent  navy,  and  built  several  vessels 
of  upwards  of  1000  tons  register.  The  largest  men  of  war  under  Eliza* 
beth  carried  forty  cannon  and  a  crew  of  several  hundred  men. 

LITERATURE,    LEARNING,   AND   ART. 

461.  Schools.  —  The  revival  of  learning  gave  a  great  impetus  to 
education.     The  money  which  had  once  been  given  to  monasteries  was 
now  spent  in  building  schools,  colleges,  and  hospitals.     Dean  Colet 
established  the  free  grammar  school  of  St.  Paul's,  several  colleges  were 
endowed  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  Edward  VI.  opened  upwards 
of  forty  free  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  of  which  the  Blue- 
Coat  School,  London,  is  one  of  the  best  known.     Improved  text-books 
were  prepared  for  the  schools,  and  Lilye's  Latin  Grammar,  first  pub- 
lished in  1513  for  the  use  of  Dean  Colet's  school,  continued  a  standard 
work  for  over  three  hundred  years. 

462.  Literature ;  the  Theatre.  —  The  latter  part  of  the  period 
deserves  the  name  of  the  "  Golden  Age  of  English  Literature."  More, 


226  LEADING   FACTS   OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Sydney,  Hooker,  Jewell,  were  the  leading  prose  writers ;  while  Spenser, 
Marlowe,  Jonson,  and  Shakespeare  represented  the  poets. 

In  1574  a  public  theatre  was  erected  in  London,  in  which  Shakespeare 
was  a  stockholder.  Not  very  long  after  a  second  was  opened.  At  both 
these  (the  Globe  and  the  Blackfriars)  the  great  dramatist  appeared  in 
his  own  plays,  and  in  such  pieces  as  King  John,  Richard  the  Third,  and 
the  Henrys,  he  taught  his  countrymen  more  of  the  true  spirit  and  mean- 
ing of  the  nation's  history  than  they  had  ever  learned  before.  His  his- 
torical plays  are  chiefly  based  on  Holinshed  and  Hall,  two  chroniclers 
of  the  period. 

463.  Progress  of  Science ;    Superstitions.  —  The  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  Cabot,  Magellan,  and  other  navigators  had  proved  the 
earth  to  be  a  globe.    Copernicus,  a  Prussian  astronomer,  now  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  it  both  turns  on  its  axis  and  revolves  around  the 
sun,  but  the  discovery  was  not  accepted  until  many  years  lacer. 

On  the  other  hand,  astrology,  witchcraft,  and  the  transmutation  ot 
copper  and  lead  into  gold  were  generally  believed  in.  In  preaching 
before  Queen  Elizabeth,  Bishop  Jewell  urged  that  stringent  measures 
be  taken  with  witches  and  sorcerers,  saying  that  through  their  demom 
acal  acts  "  your  grace's  subjects  pine  away  even  unto  death,  their  cole  j 
fadeth,  their  flesh  rotteth."  Lord  Bacon  and  other  eminent  men  held 
the  same  belief,  and  many  persons  eventually  suffered  death  for  the 
practice  of  witchcraft. 

464.  Architecture.  —  The  Gothic,  or  Pointed,  style  of  architecture 
reached  its  final  stage  (the  Perpendicular)  in  the  early  part  of  this  period. 
The  first  examples  of  it  have  already  been  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the 
preceding  period.     See  Paragraph  No.  376.     After  the  close  of  Henry 
VII.'s  reign  no  attempts  were  made  to  build  any  grand  church  edifices 
until  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  Wren,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, in  the  Italian,  or  classical  style. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  Tudor  period  many  stately  country  houses1 
and  grand  city  mansions  were  built,  ornamented  with  carved  woodwork 
and  bay-windows.  Castles  were  no  longer  constructed,  and,  as  the 
country  was  at  peace,  many  of  those  which  had  been  built  were  aban- 
doned, though  a  few  castellated  mansions  like  Thornbury  Gloucester- 

1  Such  as  Hatfield  House,  Knowle  and  Hardwick  Hall;  and,  in  London, 
mansions  similar  to  Crosby  Hall. 


POLITICAL    REACTION. 

shire  were  built  in  Henry  VIII.'s  time.  The  streets  of  London  still 
continued  to  be  very  narrow,  and  the  tall  houses,  with  projecting  stories, 
were  so  near  together  at  the  top  that  neighbors  living  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  street  might  almost  shake  hands  from  the  upper  windows. 


GENERAL    INDUSTRY    AND    COMMERCE. 

465.  Foreign  Trade.  —  The  geographical  discoveries  of  this  period 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  foreign  trade  with  Africa,  Brazil,  and  North 
America.  The  wool  trade  continued  to  increase,  and  also  commerce 
with  the  East  Indies.  In  1600  the  East  India  Company  was  established, 
thus  laying  the  foundation  of  England's  Indian  empire,  and  ships  now 
brought  cargoes  direct  to  England  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Sir  Francis  Drake  did  a  flourishing  business  in  plundering  Spanish  set- 
tlements in  America  and  Spanish  treasure-ships,  and  Sir  John  Hawkins 
became  wealthy  through  the  slave  trade,  —  kidnapping  negroes  on  the 
coast  of  Guinea,  and  selling  them  to  the  Spanish  West  India  colonies. 
The  domestic  trade  of  England  was  still  carried  on  largely  by  great 
annual  fairs.  Trade,  however,  was  much  deranged  by  the  quantities  of 
debased  money  issued  under  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 

Elizabeth  reformed  the  currency,  and  ordered  the  mint  to  send  out 
coin  which  no  longer  had  a  lie  stamped  on  its  face,  thereby  setting  an 
example  to  all  future  governments,  whether  monarchical  or  republican. 


MODE   OF   LIFE,    MANNERS,    AND   CUSTOMS. 

466.  Life  in  the  Country  and  the  City.  —  In  the  cities,  this  was 
an  age  of  luxury  ;  but  on  the  farms,  the  laborer  was  glad  to  get  a  bundle 
of  straw  for  a  bed,  and  a  wooden  trencher  to  eat  from.  Vegetables 
were  scarcely  known,  and  fresh  meat  was  eaten  only  by  the  well-to-do. 
The  cottages  were  built  of  sticks  and  mud,  without  chimneys,  and  were 
nearly  as  bare  of  furniture  as  the  wigwam  of  an  American  Indian. 

The  rich  kept  several  mansions  and  country  houses,  but  paid  little 
attention  to  cleanliness ;  and  when  the  filth  and  vermin  in  one  became 
unendurable,  they  left  it  "  to  sweeten,"  as  they  said,  and  went  to  an- 
other of  their  estates.  The  dress  of  the  nobles  continued  to  be  of 
the  most  costly  materials  and  the  gayest  colors. 

At  table,  a  great  variety  of  dishes  were  served  on  silver  plate,  but 


228  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

fingers  were  still  used  in  place  of  forks.     Tea  and  coffee  were  unknown, 
and  beer  was  the  usual  drink  at  breakfast  and  supper. 

Carriages  were  not  in  use,  except  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  all  jour- 
neys were  performed  on  horseback.  Merchandise  was  also  generally 
transported  on  pack-horses,  the  roads  rarely  being  good  enough  for  the 
passage  of  wagons.  The  principal  amusements  were  the  theatre,  dan- 
cing, masquerading,  bull  and  bear  baiting  (worrying  a  bull  or  bear 
with  dogs),  cock-fighting,  and  gambling. 


DIVINE    RIGHT   OF    KINGS   AND    PEOPLE.  229 


IX. 


'•  It  is  the  nature  of  the  devil  of  tyranny  to  tear  and  rend  the  body  which 
he  leaves."  —  MACAULAY. 


BEGINNING   WITH   THE   DIVINE   RIGHT   OF   KINGS,    AND 
ENDING  WITH  THE  DIVINE  RIGHT  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

KING  or  PARLIAMENT? 
HOUSE  OF  STUART. — 1603-1649,  1660-1714. 

James  I.,  1603-1625.  Charles  II.,  1660-1635. 

Charles  I.,  1625-1649.  James  II.,  1685-1688. 

The  Commonwealth  and  William  &.  Mary,1   1689-1702. 

Protectorate,  1649-1660.  Anne,  1702-1714. 

467.  Accession  of  James  I.  —  Elizabeth  was  the  last  of  the 
Tudor  family.  By  birth,  James  Stuart,  only  son  of  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  great  grandson  of  Margaret,  sister  of  Henry 
VIII.,  was  the  nearest  heir  to  the  crown.2  He  was  already  king 
of  Scotland  under  the  title  of  James  VI.  He  now,  by  choice  of 
Parliament,  became  James  I.  of  England.  By  his  accession  the 
two  countries  were  united  under  one  sovereign,  but  each  retained 
its  own  Parliament,  its  own  church,  and  its  own  laws.3  The  new 
monarch  found  himself  ruler  over  three  kingdoms,  each  professing 
a  different  religion.  Puritanism  prevailed  in  Scotland,  Romanism 
in  Ireland,  Anglicanism  or  Episcopacy  in  England. 


1  Orange-Stuart. 

2  See  Table,  Paragraph  No.  421. 

8  On  his  coins  and  in  his  proclamations,  James  styled  himself  King  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Ireland.  But  the  term  Great  Britain  did  not  properly  come 
into  use  until  somewhat  more  than  a  hundred  years  later,  when,  by  an  act  of  Par- 
liament under  Anne,  Scotland  and  England  were  legally  united. 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

468.  The  King's  Appearance  and  Character.  —  James  was 
unfortunate  in  his  birth.     Neither  his  father,  Lord  Darnley,  nor 
his  mother  had  high  qualities  of  character.    The  murder  of  Mary's 
Italian  secretary  in  her  own  palace,  and  almost  in  her  own  pres- 
ence,1 gave  the  queen  a  shock  which  left  a  fatal  inheritance  of 
cowardice  to  her  son.     Throughout  his  life  he  could  not  endure 
the  sight  of  a  drawn  sword.     His  personal  appearance  was  by  no 
means  impressive.     He  had  a  feeble,  rickety  body,  he  could  not 
walk  straight,  his  tongue  was  too  large  for  his  mouth,  and  he  had 
goggle  eyes.     Through  fear  of  assassination  he  habitually  wore 
thickly  padded  and  quilted  clothes,  usually  green  in  color.    He  was 
a  man  of  considerable  shrewdness,  but  of  small  mind,  and  of  un- 
bounded conceit.     His  Scotch  tutor  had  crammed  him  with  much 
ill-digested  learning,  so  that  he  gave  the  impression  of  a  man  edu- 
cated beyond  his  intellect.      He  wrote  on  witchcraft,  kingcraft, 
and  theology.      He  also  wrote  numerous  commonplace  verses, 
together  with  a  sweeping  denunciation  of  the  new  plant  called 
tobacco,  which  Raleigh  had  brought  from  America,  the  smoke  of 
which  now  began  to  perfume,  or,  according  to  James,  to  poison 
the  air  of  England.     He  had  all  the  superstitions  of  the  age,  and 
one  of  his  earliest  acts  was  the  passage  of  a  statute  punishing 
witchcraft  with  death.     Under  that  law  many  a  wretched  woman 
perished  on  the  scaffold,  whose  only  crime  was  that  she  was  old, 
ugly,  and  friendless. 

469.  The  Great  Petition.  —  During  the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  the  Puritans  in  England  had  increased  so  rapidly  that  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift  told  James  he  was  amazed  to  find  how  "  the 
vipers  "  had  multiplied.     The  Puritans  felt  that  the  Reformation 
had  not  been  sufficiently  thorough.     They  complained  that  many 
of  the  forms  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  England  were  by 
no  means  in  harmony  with  the  Scriptures.     Many  of  them  wished 
also  to  change  the  form  of  church  government,  and  instead  of 
having  bishops  appointed  by  the  king,  to  adopt  the  more  derno- 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  447. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  231 

cratic  method  of  having  presbyters  or  elders  chosen  by  the  con- 
gregation. 

While  James  was  on  the  way  from  Scotland  to  London  to  re- 
ceive the  crown,  the  Puritans  presented  a  petition  to  him,  signed 
by  upwards  of  a  thousand  of  their  ministers,  asking  that  they  might 
be  permitted  to  preach  without  wearing  the  white  gown  called  a 
surplice,  to  baptize  without  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the 
child's  forehead,  and  to  perform  the  marriage  ceremony  without 
using  the  ring. 

470.  Hampton  Court  Conference.  —  The  king  convened  a 
conference  at  Hampton  Court,  near  London,  to  consider  the 
petition,  or  rather  to  make  a  pedantic  display  of  his  own  learning. 
The  probability  that  he  would  grant  the  petitioners'  request  was 
small ;  for  James  had  come  to  England  disgusted  with  the  violence 
of  the  Scotch  Puritans,  especially  since  one  of  their  ministers  in 
Edinburgh  had  seized  his  sleeve  at  a  public  meeting,  and  addressed 
him  with  a  somewhat  brutal  excess  of  truth,  as  "  God's  silly 
vassal."  But  the  new  sovereign  had  a  still  deeper  reason  for  his 
antipathy  to  the  Puritans.  He  saw  that  their  doctrine  of  equality 
in  the  church  naturally  led  to  that  of  equality  in  the  state.  If 
they  objected  to  Episcopal  government  in  the  one,  might  they  not 
presently  object. to  royal  government  in  the  other?  Hence,  to  all 
their  arguments,  he  answered  with  his  favorite  maxim,  "  No 
bishop,  no  king,"  meaning  that  the  two  must  stand  or  fall  to- 
gether. At  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  no  real  freedom  of 
discussion  was  allowed.  The  only  good  result  was  that  the  king 
ordered  a  new  and  revised  translation  of  the  Bible  to  be  made. 
It  was  published  in  1611,  and  so  well  was  the  work  done  that  it 
still  remains  the  version  used  in  nearly  every  Protestant  church 
and  Protestant  home  where  the  English  language  is  spoken. 
James,  however,  regarded  the  conference  as  a  success.  He  had 
refuted  the  Puritans,  as  he  believed,  with  much  Latin  and  some 
Greek.  He  ended  by  declaiming  against  them  with  such  unction 
that  one  enthusiastic  bishop  declared  that  his  majesty  must  be 


232  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

specially  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost !  He  closed  the  meeting 
by  imprisoning  the  ten  persons  who  had  presented  the  petition, 
on  the  ground  that  it  tended  to  sedition  and  rebellion.  Hence- 
forth, the  king's  attitude  toward  the  Puritans  was  unmistakable. 
"  I  will  make  them  conform,"  said  he,  "  or  I  will  harry  them  out 
of  the  land." 

471.  The  Divine  Right  of  Kings.  —  As  if  with  the  desire  of 
further  alienating  his  people,  James  now  constantly  proclaimed  the 
doctrine  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings.    This  theory,  which  was  un- 
known to  the  English  constitution,  declared  that  the  king  derived  his 
power  and  right  to  rule  directly  from  God,  and  in  no  way  from  the 
people.1     "  As  it  is  atheism  and  blasphemy,"  he  said,  "  to  dispute 
what  God  can  do,  so  it  is  presumption  and  a  high  contempt  in  a 
subject  to  dispute  what  the  king  can  do."     All  this  would  have 
been  amusing  had  it  not  been  dangerous.     James  forgot  that  he 
owed  his  throne  to  that  act  of  parliament  which  accepted  him 
as  Elizabeth's  successor.     In  his  exalted  position  as  head  of  the 
nation,  he  boasted  of  his  power  much  like  the  dwarf  in  the  story, 
who,  perched  on  the  giant's  shoulders,  cries  out,  "  See  how  big 
I  am  !  " 

Acting  on  this  assumption,  James  violated  the  privileges  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  rejected  members  who  had  been  legally 
elected,  and  imprisoned  those  who  dared  to  criticise  his  course. 
The  contest  was  kept  up  with  bitterness  during  the  whole  reign. 
Towards  its  close,  the  House  again  protested  vigorously,  and  the 
king  seized  their  official  journal,  and  with  his  own  hands  tore  out 
the  record  of  the  protest. 

472.  The  Gunpowder  Plot.  —  This  arbitrary  spirit  so  angered 
the  Commons,  many  of  whom  were  Puritans,  that  they,  believing 
that  the  king  secretly  favored  the  Roman  Catholics,  increased  the 
stringency  of  the  laws  against  persons  of  that  religion.     The  king, 
to  vindicate  himself  from  this  suspicion,  proceeded  to  execute  the 

1  James's  favorite  saying  was,  "  a  Deo  rex,  a  rege  lex  "  (God  makes  the  king, 
the  king  makes  the  law). 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  233 

new  statutes  with  rigor.  As  a  rule,  the  Catholics  were  loyal  sub- 
jects. When  Spain  threatened  to  invade  the  country,  they  fought 
as  valiantly  in  its  defence  as  the  Protestants  themselves.  Many  of 
them  were  now  ruined  by  enormous  fines,  while  the  priests  were 
driven  from  the  realm.  One  of  the  sufferers  by  these  unjust 
measures  was  Robert  Catesby,  a  Catholic  gentleman  of  good  posi- 
tion. He,  with  the  aid  of  a  Yorkshire  man,  named  Guy  Fawkes, 
and  about  a  dozen  more,  formed  a  plot  to  blow  up  the  Parliament 
House,  on  the  day  the  king  was  to  open  the  session  (Nov.  5, 
1605).  Their  intention,  after  they  had  thus  summarily  disposed 
of  the  government,  was  to  induce  the  Catholics  to  rise  and  pro- 
claim a  new  sovereign.  The  plot  was  discovered,  the  conspirators 
executed,  and  the  Catholics  were  treated  with  greater  severity 
than  ever. 

473.  American    Colonies,    Virginia. — In    1607    a    London 
joint-stock  company  of  merchants  and  adventurers,  or  speculators, 
established  the  first  permanent  English  colony  in  America,  on 
the  coast  of  Virginia,  at  a  place  which  they  called  Jamestown,  in 
honor  of  the  king.1     The  colony  was  wholly  under  the  control  of 
the  crown.    The  religion  was  to  be  that  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Most  of  those  who  went  out  were  "  gentlemen,"  that  is,  persons 
not  brought  up  to  manual  labor,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
energy  and  determined  courage  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  who  was 
the  real  soul  of  the  enterprise,  it  would  have  proved  like  Raleigh's 
undertaking,  a  miserable  failure ;  in  time,  however,  the  new  colony 
gained  strength.     Negro  slavery,  which  in  those  days  touched  no 
man's  conscience,  was  introduced,  and  by  its  means  great  quan- 
tities of  tobacco  were  raised  for  export.     The  settlement  grew  in 
population  and  wealth,   and  in  less  than  a  dozen  years  it  had 
secured  the   privilege  of  making  its  own   laws,  thus   becoming 
practically  a  self-governing  community. 

474.  The  Pilgrims.  —  The  year  after  this  great  enterprise  was 
undertaken,  another  band  of  emigrants  went  out  from  England, 

1  See  Map  No.  12,  page  218. 


234  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

not  West,  but  East ;  not  to  seek  prosperity,  but  greater  religious 
freedom.  James's  declaration  that  he  would  make  all  men  conform 
to  the  established  church,  or  drive  them  out  of  the  land,  was 
having  its  due  effect. 

Those  who  continued  to  refuse  were  fined,  cast  into  noisome 
prisons,  beaten,  and  often  half-starved,  so  that  the  old  and  feeble 
soon  died.  Strange  to  say,  this  kind  of  treatment  did  not  win 
over  the  Puritans  to  the  side  of  the  bishops  and  the  king.  On 
the  contrary,  it  set  many  of  them  to  thinking  more  seriously  than 
ever  of  the  true  relations  of  the  government  to  religion.  The 
result  was  that  not  a  few  came  to  the  conclusion  that  each  body 
of  Christians  had  a  right  to  form  a  religious  society  of  its  own 
wholly  independent  of  the  state.  Those  of  the  Puritans  who  thus 
thought  got  the  name  of  Independents  or  Separatists,  because 
they  were  determined  to  separate  from  the  national  church  and 
conduct  their  worship  and  govern  their  religious  societies  as  they 
deemed  best. 

In  the  little  village  of  Scrooby,  Nottinghamshire,  Postmaster 
William  Brewster,  William  Bradford,  John  Carver,  and  some  others, 
mostly  farmers  and  poor  men  of  the  neighborhood,  had  organized 
such  an  independent  church  with  John  Robinson  for  its  minister. 
After  a  time  they  became  convinced  that  so  long  as  they  remained 
in  England  they  would  never  be  safe  from  persecution.  They 
therefore  resolved  to  leave  their  native  country,  and  as  they  could 
not  get  a  royal  license  to  go  to  America,  to  emigrate  to  Holland, 
where  all  men  were,  at  that  time,  free  to  establish  societies  for  the 
worship  of  God  in  their  own  manner.  With  much  difficulty  and 
danger  they  managed  to  escape  there.  After  remaining  there 
upwards  of  twelve  years,  a  part  of  them  succeeded  in  obtaining 
from  King  James,  after  long  negotiation,  the  privilege  of  emigrat 
ing  to  America.1  A  London  trading  company,  which  was  sending 
out  an  expedition  for  fish  and  furs,  agreed  to  furnish  the  Pilgrims 
passage  by  the  Mayflower,  though  on  terms  so  hard  that  the  poor 

1  See  "  Why  did  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  come  to  New  England  ?  "  By  Edwin  D, 
Mead,  in  the  New  Englander,  1882. 


DIVINE    RIGHT   OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.          .       235 

exiles  said  the  "  conditions  were  fitter  for  thieves  and  bondslaves 
than  honest  men." 

In  1620  these  Pilgrims,  or  wanderers,  set  forth  for  that  New 
World  beyond  the  sea,  which  they  hoped  would  redress  the  wrongs 
of  the  Old.  Landing  at  Plymouth,  in  Massachusetts,  they  estab- 
lished a  colony  on  the  basis  of  "  equal  laws  for  the  general  good." 
Ten  years  later  John  Winthrop,  a  Puritan  gentleman  of  wealth  from 
Groton,  Suffolk,  followed  with  a  small  company  and  settled  Salem 
and  Boston.  During  the  next  decade  no  less  than  twenty  thou- 
sand Englishmen  found  a  home  in  the  west,  but  to  the  little  band 
that  embarked  under  Bradford  and  Brewster  in  the  Mayflower, 
the  scene  of  whose  landing  at  Plymouth  is  painted  on  the  walls  of 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  belongs  the  credit  of  the  great  under- 
taking. Of  that  enterprise  one  of  their  brethren  in  England  wrote 
in  the  time  of  their  severest  distress,  with  prophetic  foresight,  "  Let 
it  not  be  grievous  to  you  that  you  have  been  instruments  to  break 
the  ice  for  others ;  the  honor  shall  be  yours  to  the  world's  end." 
From  this  time  forward  the  country  was  settled  mainly  by  English 
emigrants,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next  century,  or  a  little  more, 
the  total  number  of  colonies  had  reached  thirteen,  though  part  of 
them  had  been  gained  by  conquest.  Thus  the  nation  of  Great 
Britain  was  beginning  to  expand  into  that  greater  Britain  which 
it  had  discovered  and  planted  beyond  the  sea. 

475.  The  Colonization  of  Ireland.  —  While  these  events  were 
going  on  in  America,  James  was  himself  planning  a  very  different 
kind  of  colony  in  the  northeast  of  Ireland.     The  greater  part  of 
the  province  of  Ulster,  which  had  been  the  scene  of  the  rebel- 
lion under  Elizabeth,  had  been  seized  by  the  crown.     The  king 
now  granted  these  lands  to  settlers  from  Scotland  and  England. 
The  city  of  London  founded  a  colony  which  they  called  London- 
derry, and  by  this  means  Protestantism  was  firmly  and  finally  estab- 
lished in  the  north  of  the  island. 

476.  The  New  Stand  taken  by  the  House  of  Commons.  —  The 
House  of  Commons  at  this  period  began  to  slowly  get  back,  with 


236  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

interest,  the  power  it  had  lost  under  the  Tudors.  James  suffered 
from  a  chronic  lack  of  money.  He  was  obliged  to  apply  to  Par- 
liament to  supply  his  wants,  but  Parliament  was  determined  to 
grant  nothing  without  reforms.  They  laid  it  down  as  a  principle, 
to  which  they  firmly  adhered,  that  the  king  should  not  have  the 
nation's  coin  unless  he  would  promise  to  right  the  nation's  wrongs. 
In  order  to  get  means  to  support  his  army  in  Ireland,  James 
created  a  new  title  of  rank,  that  of  baronet,1  which  he  granted  to 
any  one  who  would  pay  liberally  for  it.  As  a  last  resort  to  get 
funds  he  compelled  all  persons  having  an  income  of  forty  pounds2 
or  more  a  year  derived  from  landed  property,  to  accept  knight- 
hood (thus  incurring  feudal  obligations  and  payments)  or  purchase 
exemption  by  a  heavy  fine. 

477.  Impeachment  of  Lord  Bacon.  —  In  1621  Lord  Bacon  was 
impeached  by  the   House  of  Commons,  and   convicted  by  the 
House  of  Lords,  for  having  taken  bribes  in  lawsuits  tried  before 
him  as  judge.     He  confessed  the  crime,  but  pleaded  extenuating 
circumstances,  adding,  "  I  beseech  your  worships  to  be  merciful  to 
a  broken  reed  "  ;  but  Bacon  had  been  in  every  respect  a  servile 
tool  of  James,  and  no  mercy  was  granted.     Parliament  imposed  a 
fine  of  ^40,000,  with  imprisonment.     Had  it  been  fully  executed, 
it  would  have  caused  his  utter  ruin.     The  king,  however,  inter- 
posed, and  his  favorite  escaped  with  a  few  days'  confinement  in 
the  Tower. 

478.  Execution   of  Raleigh.  —  With  Sir  Walter   Raleigh  the 
result  was  different.     He  had  been  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  for 

1  Baronet:  this  title  does  not  confer  the  right  to  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
A  baronet  is  designated  as  Sir,  e.g.,  Sir  John  Franklin. 

2  This  exaction  was  ridiculed  by  the  wits  of  the  time  in  these  lines:  — 

He  that  hath  forty  pounds  per  annum 

Shall  be  promoted  from  the  plough; 

His  wife  shall  take  the  wall  of  her  grannum  *  — 

Honor's  sold  so  dog-cheap  now." 

The  distraint  of  knighthood,  as  it  was  called,  began  at  least  as  far  back  as  Edward 

I.,  1278. 

*  Take  precedence  of  her  grandmother. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  237 

a  number  of  years,  on  an  unfounded  charge  of  conspiracy.  Influ- 
enced by  motives  of  cupidity,  James  released  him  to  go  on  an 
expedition  in  search  of  gold  to  replenish  the  royal  coffers.  Raleigh, 
contrary  to  the  king's  orders,  came  into  collision  with  the  Span- 
iards on  the  coast  of  South  America.1  He  failed  in  his  enterprise, 
and  brought  back  nothing.  Raleigh  was  especially  hated  by  Spain, 
not  only  on  account  of  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada,  but  also  for  his  subsequent  attacks  on  Spanish  treasure- 
ships  and  property.  The  king  of  that  country  now  demanded 
vengeance,  and  James,  in  order  to  get  a  pretext  for  his  execution, 
revived  the  sentence  which  had  been  passed  on  Raleigh  fifteen 
years  before.  His  real  motive  undoubtedly  was  the  hope  that,  by 
sacrificing  Raleigh,  he  might  secure  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Spain  for  his  son,  Prince  Charles.  Raleigh  died  as 
More  did,  his  last  words  a  jest  at  death.  His  deeper  feelings 
found  expression  in  the  lines  which  he  wrote  on  the  fly-leaf  of  his 
Bible  the  night  before  his  judicial  murder :  — 

"  Even  such  is  Time,  that  takes  on  trust, 

Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have, 
And  pays  us  but  with  age  and  dust; 

Who  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave, 
When  we  have  wandered  all  our  ways, 
Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days; 
But  from  this  earth,  this  grave,  this  dust, 
My  God  shall  raise  me  up,  I  trust." 

479.  Death  of  James.  —  As  for  James,  when  he  died  a  few 
years  later,  a  victim  of  confirmed  drunkenness  and  gluttony,  his 
fittest  epitaph  would  have  been  what  an  eminent  French  statesman 
of  that  time  called  him,  "  the_-wisest  fool  in  Christendom."  * 

480.  Summary.  — Three  chief  events  demand  our  attention  in 
this  reign.     First,  the  increased  power  and  determined  attitude  of 
the  House  of  Commons.     Second,  the  growth  of  the  Puritan  and 

1  It  is  said  that  James  had  treacherously  informed  the  Spanish  ambassador  of 
Raleigh's  voyage,  so  that  the  collision  was  inevitable. 
«  Thf  Due  dc  aully. 


238  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Independent  parties  in  religion.  Third,  the  establishment  of  per- 
manent, self-governing  colonies  in  Virginia  and  New  England, 
destined  in  time  to  unite  with  others  and  become  a  new  and 
independent  English  nation. 


CHARLES    I.— 1625-1649. 

481.  Accession  of  Charles;    Result  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Divine  Right  of  Kings.  — The  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings,  so  zealously  put  forth  by  James,  bore  its  full  and  fatal  fruit 
in  the  career  of  his  son.     Unlike  his  father,  Charles  was  by  nature 
a  gentleman.     In  his  private  and  personal  relations  he  was  con- 
scientious and  irreproachable ;   in  public  matters  he  was  exactly 
the  reverse.     This  singular  contrast  —  this  double  character,  as  it 
were  —  arose  from  the  fact  that  as  a  man,  Charles  felt  himself 
bound  by  truth  and  honor,  but  as  a  sovereign,  he  considered  him- 
self superior  to  such  obligations.      In  all  his  dealings  with  the 
nation  he  seems  to  have  acted  on  the  principle  that  the  people 
had  no  rights  which  kings  were  bound  to  respect. 

482.  Two  Mistakes  at  the  Outset.  —  He  began  his  reign  with 
two  mistakes.     First,  he  insisted  on  retaining  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, his  father's  favorite,  as  his  chief  adviser,  though  the  Duke 
was,  for  good  reasons,  generally  distrusted  and  disliked.     Next, 
shortly  after  his  accession,  Charles  married  Henrietta  Maria,  a 
French  Catholic  princess,  whose  religion  was  hated  by  the  majority 
of  the  English  people,  and  whose  extravagant  habits  soon  got  the 
king  into  trouble.     To  meet  her  incessant  demands  for  money, 
and  to  carry  on  a  petty  war  with  Spain,  he  was  obliged  to  ask 
Parliament  for  funds.     Parliament  declined  to  grant  him  a  supply 
unless   he   would   redress   certain   grievances   of    long   standing. 
Charles  refused  and  dissolved  that  body. 

483.  The  Second  Parliament ;   Hampden.  —  Necessity,  how- 
ever, compelled  the  king  to  call  a  new  Parliament.     When  they 
met,  the  Commons,  under  the  lead  of  Sir  John  Eliot  and  others, 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  239 

proceeded  to  draw  up  articles  of  impeachment,  accusing  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  of  mismanagement.  To  save  his  favorite  from 
being  brought  to  trial,  the  king  dissolved  Parliament,  and  as  no 
supply  had  been  voted,  Charles  now  levied  illegal  taxes  and 
extorted  loans. 

John  Hampden,  a  country  gentleman  of  Buckinghamshire,  who 
had  been  a  member  of  the  late  House  of  Commons,  refused  to 
lend  his  majesty  tffe  sum  asked  for.  For  this  refusal  he  was 
thrown  into  prison.  This  led  to  increased  agitation  and  discon- 
tent. At  length  the  king  found  himself  again  forced  to  summon 
Parliament ;  to  this  Parliament  Hampden  and  others,  who  sym- 
pathized with  him,  were  elected. 

484.  The  Petition  of  Right.  —  Immediately  on   assembling, 
they  presented  to  the  king  the  Petition  of  Right,  which  was  in  sub- 
stance a  law  reaffirming  some  of  the  chief  provisions  of  the  Great 
Charter.     It  stipulated  in  particular,  that  no  taxes  whatever  should 
be  levied  without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  and  that  no  one 
should  be  unlawfully  imprisoned  as  Hampden  had  been.     In  the 
petition  there  was  not  an  angry  word,  but  as  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mons declared,  "  We  say  no  more  than  what  a  worm  trodden  upon 
would  say  if  he  could  speak  :  I  pray  thee  tread  upon  me  no  more." 

485.  Charles   revives   Monopolies. — Charles  refused  to  sign 
the  Petition;  but  finding  that  money  could  be  got  on  no  other  terms, 
he  at  length  gave  his  signature.     But  for  Charles  to  pledge  his 
royal  word  to  the  nation  meant  its  direct  and  open  violation.    The 
king  now  revived  the  "  monopolies "  which  had  been  abolished 
under  Elizabeth.    By  these  he  granted  to  certain  persons,  in  return 
for  large  sums  of  money,  the  sole  right  of  dealing  in  nearly  every 
article  of  food,  drink,  fuel,  and  clothing.      The  Commons  de- 
nounced this  outrage.     One  member  said,  "  The  monopolists  have 
seized  everything.     They  sip  in  our  cup,  they  sup  in  our  dish,  they 
sit  by  our  fire." 

486.  The  King  rules  without  Parliament ;   "  Thorough."  — 

For  the  next  eleven  years  the  king  ruled  without  a  Parliament. 


24O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

The  obnoxious  Buckingham  had  been  assassinated.  His  successor 
was  Thomas  Wentworth,  who,  in  1640,  became  Earl  of  Strafford. 
Wentworth  had  signed  the  "  Petition  of  Right,"  but  he  was  now  a 
renegade  to  liberty,  and  wholly  devoted  to  the  king.  By  means 
of  the  Star-Chamber  and  his  scheme  called  "  Thorough,"  by  which 
he  meant  that  he  would  stop  at  nothing  to  make  Charles  absolute, 
he  labored  to  establish  a  complete  despotism.  Bishop  Laud,  who 
soon  became  head  of  the  church,  worked  with  him  through  the 
High  Commission  Court.  Together,  the  two  exercised  a  crushing 
and  merciless  system  of  political  and  religious  tyranny ;  the  Star- 
Chamber  fining  and  imprisoning  those  who  refused  the  illegal  de- 
mands for  money  made  upon  them,  the  High  Commission  Court 
equally  zealous  in  punishing  those  who  could  not  conscientiously 
conform  to  the  established  church  of  England. 

487.  Eliot's  Remonstrance.  —  Sir  John  Eliot  drew  up  a  re- 
monstrance  against   these   new   acts   of  royal   tyranny,   but   the 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  acting  under  the  king's  order, 
refused  to  put  the  measure  to  vote,  and  endeavored  to  adjourn. 
Several  members  sprang  forward  and  held  him  in  his  chair  while 
the  resolutions  were  passed,  declaring  that  whoever  levied  or  paid 
any  taxes  not  voted  by  Parliament,  or  attempted  to  make  any 
change  in  religion,  was  an  enemy  to  the  kingdom.     In  revenge 
Charles  sent  Eliot  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died  three  years  later. 

488.  Ship  Money.  —  To  obtain  means  with  which  to  equip  a 
standing  army,  the  king  forced  the  whole  country  to  pay  a  tax 
known  as  ship  money,  on  the  pretext  that  it  was  needed  to  free 
the   English   coast   from   the   depredations   of  Algerine   pirates. 
During  previous  reigns  an  impost  of  this  kind  on  the  coast  towns 
in  time  of  war  might  have  been,  considered  legitimate,  since  its 
original  object  was  to  provide  ships  for  the  national  defence.     In 
time  of  peace,  however,  such  a  demand  -could  not  be  rightfully 
made,  especially  as  the  Petition  of  Right  expressly  provided  that 
no  money  should  be  demanded  from  the  country  without  the  con- 
sent of  its  representatives  in  Parliament.     John  Hampden  again 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  24! 

resisted  payment.     The  case  was  brought  to  trial,  and  the  corrupt 
judges  decided  for  the  king. 

489.  Hampden  endeavors  to  leave  the  Country.  — Many  Puri- 
tans now  emigrated  to  America  to  escape  oppression.     Hampden, 
believing  that  there  was  no  safety  for  him  in  England,  resolved  to 
follow  their  example.     With  his  cousin  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  was 
a  brother-farmer,  and  had  sat  with  him  in  the  last  Parliament, 
Hampden  embarked  on  a  vessel  in  the  Thames,  but  they  were 
prevented  from  sailing  by  the  king's  orders.     The  two  friends  re- 
mained to  teach  the  despotic  sovereign  a  lesson  which  neither  he 
nor  England  ever  forgot.* 

490.  The  Difficulty  with  the  Scottish  Church. —  In  1637  the 
king  determined  to  force  the  use  of  a  prayer-book,  similar  to  that 
used  in  the  English  church,  on  the  Scotch  Puritans.    But  no  sooner 
had  the  Dean  of  Edinburgh  opened  the  book,  than  a  general  cry 
arose  in  the  church,  "  A  Pope,  a  Pope  !    Antichrist !    stone  him  !  " 
When  the  bishops  endeavored  to  appease  the  tumult,  the  enraged 
congregation  clapped  and  yelled. 

Once  more  the  dean  tried  to  read  prayer  from  the  obnoxious 
book,  when  an  old  woman  hurled  her  stool  at  his  head,  shouting, 
"  D'ye  mean  to  say  mass  '  at  my  lug  [ear]  ?  "  Riots  ensued,  and 
eventually  the  Scotch  solemnly  bound  themselves  by  a  covenant  to 
resist  further  attempts  to  change  their  religion.  The  king  resolved 
to  make  the  Covenanters  accept  his  liturgy  at  the  point  of  the  bay- 
onet. He  collected  an  army  for  that  purpose,  but  soon  found  that 
he  had  no  money  to  pay  them.  As  a  last  resort,  he  summoned 
that  memorable  Parliament  in  1640,  which,  from  its  almost  con- 
tinued session  of  upwards  of  thirteen  years,  received  the  name  of 
the  Long  Parliament.2 

491.  The  Long  Parliament  (1640). — The  new  Parliament  was 
made  up  of  three  parties  :  the  Church  of  England  party,  the  Pres- 

1  Mass  :  here  used  for  the  Roman  Catholic  church  service. 

2  Long  Parliament:  it  was  not  finally  dissolved  until  1660,  twenty  years  from  its 
first  meeting.     *  Guizot's  Eng.  Revol. ;  recent  authorities  deny  the  Cromwell  incident. 


242  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

byterian  party,  and  the  Independents.  The  spirit  of  this  body 
soon  showed  itself.  They  impeached  Strafford  for  his  many  years 
of  despotic  oppression,  and  sentenced  him  to  execution.  The 
king  refused  to  sign  the  death  warrant,  but  Strafford  himself  urged 
him  to  do  so  in  order  to  appease  the  people.  Charles,  frightened 
at  the  tumult  that  had  arisen,  and  entreated  by  his  wife,  finally  put 
his  hand  to  the  paper,  and  thus  sent  his  most  faithful  servant  to 
the  block.  Parliament  next  charged  Laud  with  attempting  to 
overthrow  the  Protestant  religion.  They  condemned  him  to  prison, 
and  ultimately  to  death.  Next,  they  abolished  the  Star-Chamber 
and  the  High  Commission  Court.  They  then  passed  a  bill  requir- 
ing Parliament  to  be  summoned  once  in  three  years.  They  fol- 
lowed this  by  drawing  up  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  which  they 
caused  to  be  printed  and  circulated  throughout  the  country.  The 
Remonstrance  set  forth  the  faults  of  the  king's  government,  while  it 
declared  their  distrust  of  his  policy.  Finally,  they  enacted  a  law 
forbidding  the  dissolution  of  the  present  Parliament  except  by  its 
own  consent. 

492.   The  Attempted  Arrest  of  the  Five  Members.  —  It  was 

now  rumored,  and  perhaps  with  truth,  that  the  parliamentary 
leaders  were  about  to  take  a  still  bolder  step  and  impeach  the 
queen  for  having  conspired  with  the  Catholics  and  the  Irish  to 
destroy  the  liberties  of  the  country.  No  one  knew  better  than 
Charles  how  strong  a  case  could  be  made  out  against  his  frivolous 
and  unprincipled  consort.  Driven  to  extremities,  he  determined 
to  seize  the  five  members,  Hampden,  Pym,  and  three  others,  who 
headed  the  opposition,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.1  The  House 
of  Commons  was  requested  to  give  them  up  for  trial.  The  request 
was  not  complied  with.  The  queen  urged  him  to  take  them  by 
force,  saying,  "  Go,  coward,  pull  those  rogues  out  by  the  ears." 
Thus  taunted,  the  king,  attended  by  an  armed  force,  went  on  the 

1  The  full  list  was  Hampden,  Pym,  Hollis,  Haselrig,  and  Strode,  to  which  a 
sixth,  Mandeville,  was  added  later.  See  Copley's  fine  picture  in  the  Art  Room  of 
the  Boston  Public  Library. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  243 

next  day  to  the  House  of  Parliament,  purposing  to  seize  the  mem- 
bers. They  had  been  forewarned,  and  had  left  the  House,  taking 
refuge  in  the  city,  which  showed  itself  then,  as  always,  on  the  side 
of  liberty.  Leaving  his  soldiers  at  the  door,  the  king  entered  the 
House.  Seeing  that  the  members  were  absent,  the  king  turned  to 
the  speaker  and  asked  him  where  they  were.  The  speaker  kneel- 
ing, begged  the  king's  pardon  for  not  answering,  saying,  "  that  he 
could  neither  see  nor  speak  but  by  command  of  the  House." 
Vexed  that  he  could  learn  nothing  further,  Charles  left  the  hall 
amid  ominous  cries  of  "  Privilege  !  privilege  !  " 

493.  Civil  War. — The  king,  baffled  in  his  purpose,  resolved 
to  coerce  Parliament  by  military  force.     He  left  London  in  1642, 
never  to  return  until  he  came  as  a  prisoner,  and  was  delivered  into 
the  custody  of  that  legislative  body  which  he  had  insulted  and 
defied.     Parliament  now  attempted  to  come  to  an  understanding 
with  the  king.     There  was  then  no  standing  army  in  England,  but 
each  county  and  large  town  had  a  body  of  militia,  formed  of 
citizens  who  were  occasionally  mustered  for  drill.      This  militia 
was  under  the  control  of  the  king.     Parliament  now  insisted  on 
his  resigning  that  control  to  them.     The  king  refused  to  give  up 
his  undoubted  constitutional  right  in  the  matter,  raised  the  royal 
flag  at  Nottingham,  and  the  war  began. 

494.  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads. — It  opened  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year  with  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  Warwickshire,  and  was  at 
first  favorable  to  the  king.     On  his  side  were  a  majority  of  the 
nobility,  the  clergy,  and  the  country  gentlemen,  known  collectively 
as  Cavaliers,  from  their  dashing  and  daring  horsemanship.     Their 
leader  was  Prince  Rupert,  a  nephew  of  Charles.2     On  the  side  of 
Parliament  were  the  shop-keepers,  small  farmers,  and  a  few  men 
of  high  rank ;  they  were  called  in  ridicule  the  Roundheads,  from 

1  Privilege:    the  privilege  of  Parliament  to  debate  all  questions  exempt  from 
royal  interference. 

2  See  "  A  Charge  with  Prince  Rupert,"  Atlantic  Magazine  (T,  W.  Higginson), 
Vol.  01.725. 


244  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

their  fashion  of  wearing  their  hair  closely  cropped,  so  that  it 
showed  the  shape  of  the  head.  Their  leaders  were  first  Essex 
and  Fairfax,  and  later,  Oliver  Cromwell. 

495.  How  the  Country  was  divided.  —  Taking  England  as  a 
whole,  we  may  say  that  the  eastern  half,  with  London,  was  against 
the  king,  and  that  the  western  half  was  for  him.1     Each  side  made 
great  sacrifices  in  carrying  on  the  war.    The  queen  sold  her  crown 
jewels,  and  the  Cavaliers  melted  down  their  silver  plate  to  provide 
money  to  pay  the  troops.     On  behalf  of  the  people,  Parliament 
imposed  heavy  taxes,  and  levied  now  for  the  first  time  a  duty  on 
domestic  products,  especially  on  ales  and  liquors,  known  as  the 
excise  tax.      They  also  required  each  household  to  fast  once  a 
week,  and  give  the  price  of  a  dinner  to  support  the  army.     Parlia- 
ment also  passed  what  was  called  the  Self-denying  Ordinance, 
which  required  all  members  who  held  any  civil  or  military  office  to 
resign,  and  as  Cromwell  said,  "  deny  themselves  and  their  private 
interests  for  the  public  good."     The  real  object  of  this  measure 
was  to  get  rid  of  incompetent  commanders,  and  give  the  army  the 
vigorous  men  that  the  times  demanded. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  war  great  numbers  of  little  local  news- 
papers sprang  into  short-lived  existence  in  imitation  of  the  first 
publication  of  that  sort,  the  "  Weekly  News,"  which  was  issued 
not  quite  twenty  years  before  in  the  reign  of  James  I.2  Each  of 
the  rival  armies,  it  is  said,  carried  a  printing-press  with  it,  and 
waged  furious  battles  in  type  against  the  other.  The  whole 
country  was  inundated  with  floods  of  pamphlets  discussing  every 
conceivable  religious  and  political  question.3 

496.  The  "  New  Model " ;  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant. 

—  At  the  first  battle  fought  (Edgehill,  Warwickshire)  Cromwell 

1  See  Map  No.  13,  and  Paragraph  No.  34. 

2  The  first  number  of  the  "  Weekly  News,"  published  by  Nathaniel  Butter  and 
associates,  appeared  May  22,  1622.     Previous  to  that  there  had  been  occasional 
papers  published  in  London ;  this  was  the  first  regular  sheet. 

8  About  30,000  pamphlets  came  out  between  1640-1660. 


No.  13. 


CHIEF  BATTLEFIELDS  OF 
THE  CIVIL  WAR 

OF  THE   17TH   CENTURY. 


To  face  page  244-. 

The  country  west  of  the  broad  dotted  line  supported  the  cause  of  Charles  L ; 
that  on  the  east  supported  Parliament. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  245 

saw  that  the  Cavaliers  had  the  advantage,  and  told  Hampden  that 
"  a  set  of  poor  tapsters  [drawers  of  liquor]  and  town  apprentices 
would  never  fight  against  men  of  honor."  He  forthwith  pro- 
ceeded to  organize  his  regiment  of  "  Ironsides,"  a  "  lovely  com- 
pany," as  he  said,  none  of  whom  swore  or  gambled.  After  the 
Self-denying  Ordinance  was  passed,  Cromwell  and  Fairfax  formed 
a  new  army  of  "  God-fearing  men  "  on  the  same  pattern,  almost 
all  of  whom  were  Independents.  This  was  called  the  "  New 
Model,"  and  was  placed  under  the  joint  command  of  the  men 
who  organized  it.  Very  many  of  its  officers  were  kinsmen  of 
Cromwell's,  and  it  speedily  became  the  most  formidable  body  of 
soldiers  of  its  size  in  the  world  —  always  ready  to  preach,  pray, 
exhort,  or  fight.1 

Meanwhile  Parliament  endeavored  to  persuade  the  Scotch  to 
join  them  against  the  king.  They  finally  agreed  to  do  so  on  con- 
dition that  Parliament  should  sign  the  Solemn  League  and  Cove- 
nant, establishing  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  form  of  worship  as  the 
state  religion  of  England  and  Ireland  ;  to  this  all  were  obliged  to 
conform. 

497.  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby.  —  On  the  field  of  Marston 
Moor  in  1644,  the  North  of  England  was  conquered  by  Cromwell 
with  his  invincible  little  army.     The   following  year  Cromwell's 
"  Ironsides,"  who  "  trusted  in  God  and  kept  their  powder  dry," 
gained  the  decisive  victory  of  Naseby  (1645).     Tm's  practically 
ended  the  war.     After  the  fight,  papers  belonging  to  the  king  were 
picked  up  on  the  battle-field  which  proved  that  Charles  intended 
betraying  those  who  were  negotiating  with  him  for  peace,  and  that 
he  was  planning  to  bring  foreign  troops  to  England.     This  dis- 
covery was  more  damaging  to  the  royal  cause  than  the  defeat  itself. 

498.  The  King  and  Parliament. — Shortly  after  this,  Charles 
was  surrendered  to  Parliament  by  the  Scotch,  to  whom  he  had 

1  "  The  common  soldiers,  as  well  as  the  officers,  did  not  only  pray  and  preach 
among  themselves,  but  went  up  into  the  pulpits  in  all  churches  and  preached  to  the 
people."  Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion,  Book  X.  p.  79. 


246  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

fled,  and  taken  to  Holmby  House,  Northamptonshire.  There 
Cromwell  and  the  army  made  overtures  to  him,  but  without  effect. 
He  was  then  brought  by  the  army  to  Hampton  Court,  near  Lon- 
don. Here,  and  elsewhere,  the  army  again  attempted  to  come  to 
some  definite  understanding  with  the  king,  but  all  to  no  purpose. 
Politically  speaking,  Charles  was  his  own  worst  enemy.  He  was 
false  to  the  core,  and,  as  Carlyle  has  said,  "  a  man  whose  word 
will  not  inform  you  at  all  what  he  means,  or  will  do,  is  not  a  man 
you  can  bargain  with.  You  must  get  out  of  that  man's  way,  or 
put  him  out  of  yours."  l 

499.  Pride's  Purge. — In  1648,  after  two  years  spent  in  fruit- 
less negotiations,  Charles,  who  had  fled  to  Carisbrooke  Castle  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  made  a  secret  treaty  with  the  Scots,  promising 
to  establish  the   Presbyterian  church  in  England,  if  they  would 
send  an  army  into  the  country  to  restore  him  to  the  throne.     The 
Scots  marched  into  England,  the  Royalists  rose  to  aid  them,  and 
civil  war  again  broke  out.     The  army  now  vowed  that  if  they  were 
victorious  they  would  bring  the  king  to  justice.     To  this  neither 
the  Presbyterians  in  the  House  of  Commons  nor  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Lords  would  agree. 

Colonel  Pride  then  proceeded,  as  he  said,  to  purge  Parliament 
by  driving  out  all  who  were  opposed  to  this  measure.  Cromwell 
had  no  part  in  Pride's  expulsion  of  members,  though  he  afterwards 
expressed  his  approval  of  it.  Those  who  remained  were  a  small 
body  of  Independents  only.  They  did  not  number  sixty,  and  were 
called  in  derision  the  Rump  Parliament. 

500.  Execution  of  the  King.  —  This  legislative  remnant  next 
named  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  persons  to  constitute  a  high 
court  of  justice  to  try  the  king  on  a  charge  of  treason  against  the 
nation,  of  which  the  chief  judge  or  presiding  officer  was  John 
Bradshaw.       Out   of   this   number   less   than   half  were   present 
throughout  the  trial.      Of  those  who  remained  and  signed   the 


1  Carlyle 's  Past  and  Present. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  247 

death-warrant  Cromwell  was  one.  Prince  Charles,  then  a  refugee 
in  France,  made  every  effort  to  save  his  father.  He  sent  a  blank 
paper  bearing  his  signature  and  seal  to  the  judges,  offering  to  bind 
himself  to  any  conditions  they  might  insert,  providing  his  father's 
life  might  be  spared  ;  but  no  answer  was  returned. 

On  Jan.  20,  1649,  tne  king  was  brought  into  court.  A  week 
later  the  judges  pronounced  sentence  of  death  on  "  Charles  Stuart, 
king  of  England,"  as  a  "  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  public 
enemy." 

Throughout  the  trial  Charles  bore  himself  with  dignity  and  self- 
possession.  The  crisis  had  brought  out  the  best  elements  of  his 
nature.  He  was  beheaded  in  London  in  front  of  the  royal  palace 
of  Whitehall.  "  A  great  shudder  ran  through  the  crowd  that  saw 
the  deed,  then  a  shriek,  then  all  immediately  dispersed." 

501.  Summary. — The  whole  of  Charles   I.'s  reign  must  be 
regarded  as  a  prolonged  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  nation. 
Under  the  Tudors  and  James  I.  the  royal  power  had  been  growing 
more  and  more  despotic,  while  at  the  same  time  the  progress  of 
the   Protestant  Reformation  and  of  Puritanism  had  encouraged 
freedom  of  thought.     Between  these  opposite  forces  a  collision 
was  inevitable,  since  religious  liberty  always  favors  political  lib- 
erty.    Had  Charles  known  how  to  yield  in  time,  or  been  sincere 
in  the  concessions  which  he  did  make,  all  might  have  gone  well. 
His  duplicity  was  his  ruin.     Though  his  death  did  not  absolutely 
destroy  the  theory  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  yet  it  gave  it  a 
blow  from  which  it  never  recovered. 

THE  COMMONWEALTH   AND   PROTECTORATE.  —  1649-1660 

502.  Establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  or  Republic  (1649- 
1660).  —  On  the  afternoon  of  Jan.  30,   1649,  while   the  crowd 
that  had  witnessed  the  execution  of  Charles  was  slowly  leaving  the 
spot,  the  House  of  Commons  passed  an  act  prohibiting  the  pro- 
claiming of  any  person  king  of  England  or  Ireland  or  the  domin- 
ions thereof. 


248  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Less  than  two  months  afterward  they  abolished  the  House  of 
Lords  as  both  useless  and  dangerous.  England  was  now  a  republic, 
governed,  in  name  at  least,  by  a  council  of  state.  Of  this  council 
John  Bradshaw  was  president,  the  poet  Milton'  was  foreign  secre- 
tary, while  Fairfax  with  Cromwell  had  command  of  the  army. 
The  real  power  was  in  the  army,  and  the  true  head  of  the  army  was 
Cromwell.  Without  him  the  so-called  republic  could  not  have 
stood  a  day. 

503.  Radical  Changes.  —  All  members  of  the. House  of  Com- 
mons, with  those  who  held  any  civil  or  military  office,  were  re- 
quired to  swear  allegiance  to  the  Commonwealth  "  without  king  or 
House  of  Lords."     The  use  of  the  English  church  service  was 
forbidden,  and  the  statues  of  Charles  in  London  were  pulled  down 
and  demolished.     The  great  seal  of  England  was  broken,  and  a 
new  one  adopted,  having  on  one  side  a  map  of  England  and 
Ireland,  on  the  other  a  representation  of  the  Commons  in  session, 
with  the  words,  "  In  the  first  year  of  freedom,  by  God's  blessing 
restored  1648."* 

504.  Difficulties  of  the  New  Republic.  —  Shortly  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  Fairfax  resigned  his  com- 
mand, and  Cromwell  was  now  the  sole  leader  of  the  military  forces 
of  the  country.      But  the  new  government,  even  with  his  aid, 
had  no  easy  task  before  it.      It  had  enemies  in  the  Royalists, 
who,  since  the  king's  execution,  had  grown  stronger ;  in  the  Pres- 
byterians, who  hated  both  the  Rump  Parliament  and  the  army ; 
finally  it   had    enemies   in  its  own  ranks   in  half-crazy  fanatics, 
"Levellers,"1  "Come-outers,"2  and  other  "cattle  and  creeping 
things,"  who  would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  but  destruction  and 
confusion.     Among  them  were  communists,  who,  like  those  of  the 

1  "  Levellers  " :  a  name  given  to  certain  radical  republicans  who  wished  to  re- 
duce all  ranks  and  classes  to  the  same  level  with  respect  to  political  power  and 
privileges.  *  1648,  or  1649,  N.  S.    See  p.  318,  note. 

2  "Come-outers":   this,  though  a  modern  ter*,  describes  a  class  who  aban 
doned  all  established  ways,  both  of  government  and  religion. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  249 

present  day,  wished  to  abolish  private  property,  and  establish  "  an 
equal  division  of  unequal  earnings,"  while  others  declared  and 
acted  out  their  belief  in  the  coming  end  of  the  world.  Eventually 
Cromwell  had  to  deal  with  these  enthusiasts  in  a  decided  way, 
especially  as  some  of  them  threatened  to  assassinate  him  in  order 
to  hasten  the  personal  reign  of  Christ  and  his  saints  on  earth. 

505.  Risings  in  Ireland  and  Scotland;  Worcester.  —  In  Ireland 
the  Royalists  had  proclaimed  Prince  Charles  king.     Cromwell  was 
deputed  to  reduce  that  country  to  order.     To  his  invincible  army 
of  Independents  nothing  could  have  been  more  congenial  than 
such  a  crusade.     Th'ey  descended  upon  the  unhappy  island,  and 
wiped  out  the  rebellion  in  such  a  whirlwind  of  fire  and  slaughter, 
that  the  horror  of  the  visitation  has  never  been  forgotten.     To  this 
day  the  direst  imprecation  a  southern  Irishman  can  utter  is,  "  the 
curse  of  Cromwell  on  ye." 

In  Scotland  also  Charles  was  looked  upon  as  the  legitimate 
sovereign  by  a  strong  and  influential  party.  He  found  in  the  brave 
Montrose,1  who  was  hanged  for  treason  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  other 
loyal  supporters  far  better  friends  than  he  deserved.  In  1650  the 
prince  came  to  Scotland,  took  the  oath  of  the  Covenant,  which 
must  have  been  a  bitter  pill  to  him,  and  rallied  a  small  force,  which 
was  completely  defeated  that  year  at  Dunbar. 

Twelve  months  later,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  victory  of  Dunbar, 
Charles  made  a  second  attempt  to  obtain  the  crown.  At  the 
battle  of  Worcester,  Cromwell  again  routed  his  forces  and  brought 
the  war  to  an  end.  Charles  escaped  into  Shropshire,  where  he  hid 
for  a  day  in  an  oak  at  Boscobel.  After  many  narrow  escapes  he 
at  length  succeeded  in  getting  out  of  the  country. 

506.  Cromwell  expels  Parliament.  — Cromwell  now  urged  the 
necessity  of  calling  a  Parliament  which  should  represent  the  coun- 
try, reform  the  laws,  and  pass  a  general  act  of  pardon.     In  his 
despatch  to  the  House  of  Commons  after  the  victory  of  Wor- 
cester, he  called  the  battle  a  "crowning  mercy."     Some  of  the 

1  Sec  Avtoun's  Scottish  Ballads:  the  Execution  of  Montrose. 


250  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

republicans  in  that  body  took  alarm  at  this  phrase,  and  thought 
that  Cromwell  used  it  to  foreshadow  a  design  to  place  the  crown  on 
his  own  head.  For  this  reason,  perhaps,  they  hesitated  to  dissolve. 

But  at  last  they  could  not  withstand  the  pressure,  and  in  1653 
a  bill  was  introduced  for  summoning  a  new  Parliament  of  four 
hundred  members,  but  with  the  provision  that  all  members  of  the 
present  House  were  to  keep  their  seats,  and  have  the  right  to 
reject  newly  elected  members. 

Cromwell,  with  the  army,  believed  this  provision  a  trick  on  the 
part  of  the  Rump  to  keep  themselves  in  perpetual  power. 

Sir  Harry  Vane,  who  was  a  leading  member  of  the  House,  and 
who  had  been  governor  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts,  feared 
that  the  country  was  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  Crom- 
well as  military  dictator.  He  therefore  urged  the  immediate 
passage  of  the  bill  as  it  stood.  Cromwell  heard  that  a  vote  was 
about  to  be  taken.  Putting  himself  at  the  head  of  a  squad  of 
soldiers,  whom  he  left,  at  the  door,  he  suddenly  entered  the  House. 
After  listening  to  the  debate  for  some  time,  he  rose  from  his  seat 
and  charged  the  Commons  with  injustice  and  misgovernment.  A 
member  remonstrated.  Cromwell  grew  excited,  saying,  "  You  are 
no  Parliament !  I  say  you  are  no  Parliament !  "  Then  he  called 
in  the  musketeers.  The  speaker  was  dragged  from  his  chair,  and 
the  members  driven  after  him.  As  they  passed  out,  Cromwell 
shouted  "drunkard,"  "glutton,"  "extortioner,"  with  other  oppro- 
brious names.  When  all  were  gone,  he  locked  the  door  and  put 
the  key  in  his  pocket.  During  the  night  some  Royalist  wag  nailed 
a  placard  on  the  door,  bearing  the  inscription  in  large  letters, 
"This  House  to  let,  unfurnished!" 

507.  Cromwell  becomes  Protector  (1653).  — Cromwell  now 
summoned  a  new  Parliament  of  his  own  choosing.  It  consisted 
of  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine  members,  and  was  known  as  the 
"  Little  Parliament."  l  The  Royalists  nicknamed  it  "  Barebone's 

1  A  regularly  summoned  Parliament,  elected  by  the  people,  would  have  been 
much  larger.  This  was  chosen  from  a  list  furnished  by  the  ministers  of  the  various 
Independent  churches.  It  was  in  no  true  sense  a  representative  body. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  251 

Parliament "  from  one  of  its  members,  a  London  leather  merchant 
named  Praise-God  Barebone.  Notwithstanding  the  irregularity  of 
its  organization  and  the  ridicule  cast  upon  it,  the  Barebone's  Parlia- 
ment proposed  several  reforms  of  great  value,  which  the  country 
afterward  adopted. 

A  council  now  presented  a  constitution,  entitled  the  "  Instru- 
ment of  Government,"  l  which  made  Cromwell  Lord  Protector  of 
England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland.  Up  to  this  time  the  Common- 
wealth had  been  a  republic,  nominally  under  the  control  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  governed  by  Crom- 
well and  the  army ;  now  it  became  a  republic  under  a  Protector, 
or  president,  who  was  to  hold  his  office  for  life. 

A  few  years  later,  a  second  constitution  was  drafted,  called  the 
"  Humble  Petition  and  Advice," 2  which  offered  Cromwell  the 
crown.  He  would  have  taken  it ;  but  finding  the  army  would  not 
support  him  in  such  a  step,  reluctantly  relinquished  it.  He  at  the 
same  time  endeavored  to  restore  the  House  of  Lords,  but  could 
not  get  them  to  attend. 

508.  Emigration  of  Royalists.  —  Under  the  tyranny  of  the 
Stuart  kings  many  Puritans  had  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  and 
other  parts  of  New  England.  During  the  Commonwealth  the 
case  was  reversed,  and  numbers  of  Royalists  fled  to  Virginia. 
Among  them  were  John  Washington,  the  great-grandfather  of 
George  Washington,  and  the  ancestors  of  Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry, 
the  Lees,  Randolphs,  and  other  prominent  families,  destined  in 
time  to  found  a  republic  in  the  New  World  much  more  demo- 
cratic than  anything  the  old  had  ever  seen. 

1  "  Instrument  of  Government "  :    the  principal  provisions  of  this  constitution 
were :    i.  The  government  was  vested  in  the  Protector  and  a  council  appointed  for 
life ;  2.  Parliament  to  be  summoned  every  three  years,  and  not  to  be  dissolved  under 
five  months ;   3.  A  standing  army  of  30,000  to  be  maintained ;   4.  All  taxes  to  be 
levied  by  Parliament ;   5.  The  system  of  representation  was  reformed,  so  that  many 
large  places  hitherto  without  representation  in  Parliament  now  obtained  it ;   6.  All 
Roman  Catholics,  and  those  concerned  in  the  Irish  rebellion,  were  disfranchised 
(orever. 

2  "The  Humble  Petition  and  Advice"  was  a  modification  of  the  "  Instrument 
of  Government." 


252  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

509.  Cromwell   as  a  Ruler.  —  When  Cromwell's  new  Parlia- 
ment ventured  to  criticise  his  course,  he  dissolved  them  quite  as 
peremptorily  as  the  late  king.     Soon  after,  fear  of  a  Royalist  re- 
bellion led  him  to  divide  the  country  into  eleven  military  districts, 
each  governed  by  a  major-general,  who  ruled  by  martial  law  and 
with  despotic  power.     All  Royalist  families  were  heavily  taxed  to 
support  the  standing  army ;    all   Catholic  priests  were  banished, 
and  no  books  or  papers  could  be  published  without  permission  of 
the  government. 

Cromwell,  however,  though  compelled  to  resort  to  severe 
measures  to  secure  peace,  was,  in  spirit,  no  oppressor.  On  the 
contrary,  he  proved  himself  the  Protector  not  only  of  the  realm, 
but  of  the  Protestants  of  Europe.  When  they  were  threatened 
with  persecution,  his  influence  saved  them.  He  showed,  too,  that 
in  an  age  of  bigotry  he  was  no  bigot.  Puritan  fanaticism,  exasper- 
ated by  the  persecution  it  had  endured  under  James  and  Charles, 
often  went  to  the  utmost  extremes,  even  as  "  Hudibras  " l  said,  to 
killing  of  a  cat  on  Monday  for  catching  of  a  rat  on  Sunday." 

It  treated  the  most  innocent  customs,  if  they  were  in  any  way 
associated  with  Romanism  or  Episcopacy,  as  serious  offences.  It 
closed  all  places  of  amusement ;  it  condemned  mirth  as  ungodly  ; 
it  was  a  sin  to  dance  round  a  May-pole,  or  to  eat  mince-pie  at 
Christmas.  Fox-hunting  and  horse-racing  were  forbidden,  and 
bear-baiting  prohibited,  "  not  because  it  gave  pain  to  the  bear,  but 
because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators." 

In  such  an  age,  when  a  man  could  hardly  claim  to  be  religious 
unless  he  wore  sad-colored  raiment,  talked  through  his  nose,  and 
quoted  Scripture  at  every  sentence,  Cromwell  showed  exceptional 
moderation  and  good  sense. 

510.  His  Religious  Toleration. — He  favored  the  toleration 
of  all  forms   of  worship   not   directly  opposed   to   the   govern- 

1  "  Hudibras"  :  a  burlesque  poem  by  Samuel  Butler.  It  was  published  in  1663, 
and  satirizes  all  the  leading  persons  and  parties  of  the  Commonwealth,  but  espe- 
cially the  Puritans. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  253 

ment.  He  befriended  the  Quakers,  who  were  then  looked  upon 
as  the  enemies  of  every  form  of  worship,  and  were  treated  with 
cruel  severity  both  in  England  and  America.  He  was  instrumen- 
tal in  sending  the  first  Protestant  missionaries  to  Massachusetts  to 
convert  the  Indians,  then  supposed  by  many  to  be  a  remnant  of 
the  lost  tribes  of  Israel ;  and  after  an  exclusion  of  many  centuries,1 
he  permitted  the  Jews  to  return  to  England,  and  even  to  build  a 
synagogue  in  London. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  few  of  the  cathedral  or  parish 
churches  of  England  which  do  not  continue  to  testify  to  the 
destructive  hatred  which  during  the  civil  wars  vented  itself  on 
everything  savoring  of  the  rule  of  either  pope  or  bishop.  The 
empty  niches,  where  some  gracious  image  of  the  Virgin  or  the 
figure  of  some  saint  once  looked  down ;  the  patched  remnants  of 
brilliantly  stained  glass,  once  part  of  a  picture  telling  some  scrip- 
ture story ;  the  mutilated  tombs,  broken,  hacked,  and  hewed  by 
pike  and  sword  because  on  them  was  some  emblem  or  expression 
of  the  old  faith  —  all  these  still  bear  witness  to  the  fury  of  the 
Puritan  soldiers,  who  did  not  respect  even  the  graves  of  their 
ancestors,  if  those  ancestors  had  once  thought  differently  from 
themselves. 

511.  Victories  by  Land  and  Sea. — Yet  during  Cromwell's  rule 
the  country,  notwithstanding  all  the  restrictions  imposed  by  a 
stern  military  government,  grew  and  prospered.  The  English 
forces  gained  victories  by  land  and  sea,  and  made  the  name  of  the 
Protector  respected  as  that  of  Charles  had  never  been.  At  this 
period  the  carrying-trade  of  the  world  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch,  and  Amsterdam  had  become  a  more  important  centre 
of  exchange  than  London.  In  1651  the  Commonwealth  passed 
measures  called  Navigation  Laws  to  encourage  British  commerce 
by  prohibiting  the  importation  or  exportation  of  any  goods  into 
England  or  its  colonies  in  Dutch  vessels.  Later,  war  with  the 
Dutch  broke  out  partly  on  account  of  questions  of  trade,  and 

l  See  Paragraph  No.  274. 


254  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

partly  because  Royalist  plotters  found  protection  in  Holland. 
Then  Cromwell  created  such  a  navy  as  the  country  had  never 
before  possessed,  and,  under  the  command  of  Blake,  the  Dutch 
were  beaten  so  thoroughly  that  they  bound  themselves  to  ever 
after  salute  the  English  flag  wherever  they  should  meet  it  on  the 
seas.  A  war  undertaken  in  alliance  with  France  against  Spain  was 
equally  successful.  Jamaica  was  taken  as  a  permanent  possession 
by  the  British  fleet,  and  France,  out  of  gratitude  for  assistance, 
gave  the  town  of  Dunkirk  to  England,  so  that  the  flag  of  the 
Commonwealth  was  now  planted  on  the  French  coast. 

512.  Cromwell's  Death ;  Ms  Character.  —  After  being  king  in 
everything  but  name  for  five  years,  Cromwell  died  Sept.  3,  1658, 
on  the  anniversary  of  the  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  career  he  had  lived  in  constant  dread  of 
assassination,  and  wore  concealed  armor.    At  the  hour  of  his  death 
one  of  the  most  fearful  storms  was  raging  that  had  ever  swept  over 
England.     To  many  it  seemed  a  fit  accompaniment  to  the  close 
of  such  a  life.1 

In  one  sense,  Cromwell  was  a  usurper  and  a  tyrant ;  but,  at 
heart,  his  object  was  his  country's  welfare.  In  such  cases  the 
motive  is  all  in  all.  He  was  a  man  of  rough  exterior  and  hard 
manner.  He  cared  little  for  the  smooth  proprieties  of  life,  yet  he 
had  that  dignity  of  bearing  which  high  moral  purpose  gives.  In 
all  that  he  did  he  was  eminently  practical.  In  an  age  of  isms, 
theories,  and  experiments,  he  was  never  confused  and  never  fal- 
tered in  his  course. 

513.  The  Times  needed  Such  a  Man.  — There  are  emergencies 
when  an  ounce  of  decision  is  worth  a  pound  of  deliberation. 
When  the  ship  is  foundering  or  on  fire,  or  when  the  crew  have 
mutinied,  it  will  not  avail  to  sit  in  the  cabin  and  discuss  how  it 

1  Cromwell  was  always  a  lonely  man,  and  had  so  few  real  friends  that  Walter 
Scott  may  have  expressed  his  true  feeling  when  he  makes  him  say  in  "  Wood- 
stock "  :  "  I  would  /  had  any  creature,  were  it  but  a  dog,  that  followed  me  because 
it  loved  me,  not  for  what  it  could  make  of  me," 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  255 

happened.  Something  must  be  done,  and  that  promptly.  Crom- 
well was  the  man  for  such  a  juncture.  He  saw  clearly  that  if  the 
country  was  to  be  kept  together,  it  must  be  by  decided  measures, 
which  no  precedent,  law,  or  constitution  justified,  but  which  stood 
justified  none  the  less  by  the  exigencies  of  the  crisis,  by  his  own 
conscious  rectitude  of  purpose,  and  by  the  result. 

If  there  is  any  truth  in  Napoleon's  maxim,  that  "the  tools  be- 
long to  him  that  can  use  them,"  then  Cromwell  had  a  God-given 
right  to  rule  ;  for,  first,  he  had  the  ability ;  and,  next,  if  we  except 
his  campaign  in  Ireland,  he  employed  it,  all  things  considered,  on 
the  side  of  order  and  of  justice. 

514.  Summary.  —  Cromwell's  original  purpose  appears  to  have 
been  to  establish  a  government  representing  the  will  of  the  nation 
more  completely  than  it  had  ever  been  before.     He  favored  the 
restoration  of  the  House  of  Lords,  he  endeavored  to  reform  the 
laws,  and  he  sought  to  secure  religious  toleration  for  the  great  body 
of  Protestants.     Circumstances,  however,  were  often  against  him  ; 
he  had  many  enemies,  and  in  order  to  secure  peace  he  was  obliged 
to  resort  to   absolute  power.     Yet  the  difference  in  this  respect 
between  him  and  Charles  I.  was  immense ;  the  latter  was  despotic 
on  his  own  account,    the  former  for  the   advantage  of  those  he 
governed. 

RICHARD  CROMWELL —  Sept.  3.  1658,  to  April  22,  I659.1 

515.  Richard  Cromwell's  Incompetency.  —  Richard   Crom- 
well, Oliver's  eldest  son,  now  succeeded  to  the  Protectorate.     He 
was  an  amiable   individual,  as  negative  in  character  as  his  father 
had  been    positive.      With   the  extreme  Puritans,  known  as  the 
"  godly  party,"  he  had  no  sympathy  whatever.      "  Here,"  said  he 
to  one  of  them,  pointing  to  a  friend  of  his  who  stood  by,  "  is  a 
man  who  can  neither  preach  nor  pray,  yet  I  would  trust  him  be- 

i  Richard  Cromwell  continued  lo  reside  in  the  royal  palace  of  Whitehall  until 
July,  but  he  virtually  gave  up  all  power  in  April. 


256  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

fore  you  all."  Such  frankness  was  not  likely  to  make  the  new 
ruler  popular  with  the  army  made  up  of  men  who  never  lacked  a 
scripture  text  to  justify  either  a  murder  or  a  massacre.  More- 
over, the  times  were  perilous,  and  called  for  a  decided  hand  at  the 
helm.  After  a  brief  reign  of  less  than  eight  months  the  military 
leaders  requested  Richard  to  resign,  and  soon  after  recalled  the 
Rump  Parliament. 

516.  Richard  retires. — The  Protector  retired  not  only  with- 
out remonstrance,  but  apparently  with  a  sense  of  relief  at  being  so 
soon  eased  of  a  burden  too  heavy  for  his  weak  shoulders  to  carry. 
To  the  people  he  was  hereafter  familiarly  known  as  "Tumble- 
down-Dick," and  was  caricatured  as  such  on  tavern  sign-boards. 
The  nation  pensioned  him  off  with  a  moderate  allowance,  and  he 
lived  in  obscurity  to  an  advanced  age,  carrying  about  with  him  to 
the  last  a  trunk  filled  with  the  congratulatory  addresses  and  oaths 
of  allegiance  which  he  had  received  when  he  became  Protector. 

Years  after  his  abdication  it  is  reported  that  he  visited  West- 
minster, and  when  the  attendant,  who  did  not  recognize  him, 
showed  him  the  throne,  he  said,  "Yes;  I  have  not  seen  that  chair 
since  I  sat  in  it  myself  in  1659." 

517.  The  Convention  Parliament. — The  year  following  Rich- 
ard's withdrawal  was  full  of  anxiety  and  confusion.     The  army  had 
dissolved  Parliament,  there  was  no  longer  any  regularly  organized 
government,  and  the  country  drifted  helplessly  like  a  ship  without 
a  pilot. 

General  Monk,  then  commander- in-chief  in  Scotland,  now 
marched  into  England  with  the  determination  of  calling  a  new 
Parliament  which  should  be  full,  free,  ana  representative  of  the 
real  political  feeling  of  the  nation.  When  he  reached  London 
with  his  army,  the  members  of  the  Rump  had  resumed  their  ses- 
sions. At  Monk's  invitation  the  Presbyterian  members,  whom 
Colonel  Pride  had  driven  from  their  seats  eleven  years  before,  now 
went  back.  This  assembly  issued  writs  for  the  summoning  of  a 
Convention  Parliament  (so  styled  because  called  without  royal 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  257 

authority),  and  then  dissolved  by  their  own  consent.  Thus  ended 
mat  memorable  Long  Parliament  which  had  existed  nearly  twenty 
years.  About  a  month  later  the  Convention,  including  ten  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Lords,  met,  and  at  once  invited  Charles 
Stuart,  then  in  Holland,  to  return  to  his  kingdom.1 

518.  Summary. — Richard  Cromwell's  government  existed  in 
name  only,  never  in  fact.     During  his  so-called  protectorate  the 
country  was  under  the  control  of  the  army,  or  of  that  Rump  Par- 
liament which  represented  nothing  but  itself.     The  period  which 
elapsed   after   Oliver  Cromwell's  death  was  one  of  waiting  and 
preparation.     It  ended  in  the  meeting  of  the  free  national  Parlia- 
ment, which  put  an  end  to  the  republic,  and  restored  royalty  in  the 
person  of  Charles  II. 

CHARLES  II.  — 1660-1685. 

519.  The  Accession  of  Charles.  — The  English  army  heard  that 
Charles  was  coining,  with  sullen  silence ;  the  ex-members  of  the 
Rump,  with  sullen  dread ;  the  rest  of  the  nation,  with  a  feeling 
of  relief.     However  much  they  had  hated  the  despotism  of  the 
Stuarts,   four-fifths  of  the   people   welcomed   any  change  which 
promised  to  do  away  with  a  government  maintained  by  bayonets. 

Charles  was  received  at  Dover  with  the  wildest  demonstrations 
of  joy.  Bells  pealed,  flags  waved,  bonfires  blazed  all  the  way  to 
London,  and  the  king  said,  with  characteristic  irony,  "  It  must  have 
been  my  own  fault  that  I  did  not  come  before,  for  I  find  no  one 
but  declares  that  he  is  glad  to  see  me." 

The  fact  that  the  republic  had  existed  was  as  far  as  possible 
ignored.  The  new  reign  was  dated,  not  when  it  actually  began, 

lln  anticipation  of  this  event  Charles  had  issued  certain  promises  at  Breda, 
Holland,  called  the  Declaration  of  Breda,  which  granted  — 

1.  Free  pardon  to  all  those  not  excepted  by  Parliament. 

2.  Liberty  of  conscience  to  all  whose  views  did  not  disturb  the  peace  of  the 
realm. 

3.  The  settlement  by  Parliament  of  all  claims  to  landed  property. 

4.  The  payment  of  arrears  to  Monk's  army. 


258  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

but  from  the  day  of  Charles  I.'s  execution  twelve  years  before. 
The  troops  of  the  Commonwealth  were  speedily  disbanded,  but 
the  king  retained  a  picked  guard  of  5000  men,  which  became  the 
nucleus  of  a  new  standing  army. 

520.  The   King's   Character. — The   sovereign  who  now  as- 
cended the  throne  was  in  every  respect  the  opposite  of  Crom- 
well.    Charles  had  no  love  of  country,  no  sense  of  duty,  no  belief 
in  man,  no  respect  for  woman.     Evil  circumstances  and  evil  com- 
panions had  made  him  "  a  good-humored  but  hard-hearted  volup- 
tuary."    For  twelve  years  he  had  been  a  wanderer,  and  at  times 
almost  a  beggar.    Now  the  sole  aim  of  his  life  was  enjoyment.    He 
desired  to  be  king  because  he  would  then  have  every  means  for 
accomplishing  that  aim. 

521.  Reaction  from  Puritanism.  —  In   this  purpose   Charles 
had  the  sympathy  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  people.    The  Puri- 
tan faith,  represented  by  such  men  as  Milton  and  Hampden,  was 
noble  indeed ;  but  unfortunately  there  were  many  in  its  ranks  who 
had   no   like   grandeur  of  soul,  but  who  pushed  Puritanism   to 
its  most  injurious  and  offensive  extreme.     That  attempt  to  reduce 
the  whole  of  life  to  a  narrow  system  of  sour  self-denial  had  at  last 
broken  down.    Now,  under  the  Restoration,  the  reaction  set  in,  and 
the  lower  and  earthly  side  of  human  nature  —  none  the  less  human 
because  it  is  at  the  bottom  and  not  at  the  top  —  seemed  deter- 
mined to  take  its  full  revenge.     Butler  ridiculed  religious  zeal  in 
his  poem  of  "Hudibras,"  which  every  courtier  had  by  heart.     It 
was  an  epidemic  of  immorality.     Profligacy  became  the  fashion  in 
both  speech  and  action,  and  much  of  the  popular  literature  of  that 
day  will  not  bear  the  light. 

522.  The  Royal  Favorites  ;  the  Cabal.  — The  king  surrounded 
himself  with  men  like  himself.     They  vied  with  each  other  in  dis- 
sipation and  in  jests  on  each  other.     Charles's  two  chief  favorites 
were  the  Earl  of  Rochester,  a  gifted  but  ribald  poet,  and  Lord 
Shaftesbury,  who  became  chancellor.     Both  have  left  on  record 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  259 

their  estimate  of  their  royal  master.  The  first  wrote  on  the  door 
of  the  king's  bed-chamber  :  — 

"  Here  lies  our  sovereign  lord,  the  king, 

Whose  word  no  man  relies  on; 
He  never  says  a  foolish  thing, 
Nor  ever  does  a  wise  one." 

To  which  Charles,  on  reading  it,  retorted,  "  Tis  true  !  because 
while  my  words  are  my  own,  my  acts  are  my  ministers'." 

A  bright  repartee  tells  us  what  the  second  favorite  thought. 
"  Ah  !  Shaftesbury,"  said  the  king  to  him  one  day,  "  I  verily  be- 
lieve you  are  the  wickedest  dog  in  my  dominions."  "  Yes,  your 
Majesty,"  replied  Shaftesbury,  "  for  a  subject  I  think  perhaps  I 
may  be." 

The  new  reign,  from  a  political  point  of  view,  began  decently 
and  ably  with  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  as  leading  minister,  but  in  a 
few  years  it  degenerated  into  an  administration  called  the  Cabal, 
which  was  simply  a  government  of  debauchees,  whose  sole  object 
was  to  advance  their  own  private  interests  by  making  the  king 
supreme.1  Its  character  and  deeds  may  best  be  learned  from  that 
picture  of  the  council  of  the  "  infernal  peers,"  which  Milton  por- 
trayed in  "  Paradise  Lost,"  where  the  five  princes  of  evil,  Moloch, 
Belial,  Mammon,  Beelzebub,  and  Satan,  meet  in  the  palace  of 
Pandemonium  to  plot  the  ruin  of  the  world.2 

1  This  word  was  originally  used  to  designate  the  confidential  members  of  the 
king's  private  council,  and  meant  perhaps  no  more  than  the  word  cabinet  does  to- 
day.    In   1667  it  happened,  however,  by  a  singular  coincidence,  that  the  initial 
letters  of  the  five  persons  comprising  it,  namely  (C)lifford,  (A)shley-Cooper  [Lord 
Shaftesbury],   (B)uckingham,   (A)rlington,  and    (L)auderdale   formed   the  word 
CABAL,  which  henceforth  came  to  have  the  odious  meaning  of  secret  and  unscru- 
pulous intrigue  that  it  has  ever  since  retained.     It  was  to  Charles  II.'s  time  what 
the  political  "  ring  "  is  to  our  own. 

2  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Book  II.     The  first  edition  was  published  in  1667, 
the  year  the  Cabal  came  into  power,  though  its  members  had  long  been  favorites 
with  the  king.    It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the  great  Puritan  poet  had  them 
in  his  mind  when  he  represented  the  Pandemonic  debate.     Shaftesbury  and  Buck- 
ingham are  also  two  of  the  most  prominent  characters  in  Dryden's  political  satire 
of  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  published  in  1681, 


26O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

523.  Punishment  of  the  Regicides.  —The  first  act  of  Charles's 
first  Parliament  was  to  proclaim  a  pardon  to  all  who  had  fought 
against  his  father  in  the  civil  war.     The  only  persons  excepted 
were  the  members  of  that  High  Court  of  Justice  which  had  sent 
Charles  I.  to  the  block.    Of  these,  ten  were  executed  and  nineteen 
imprisoned  for  life.     Most  of  the  other  regicide  judges  were  either 
already  out   of  the   country,  or  managed   to  escape  soon  after. 
Among  these,  William  Goffe,  Edward  Whalley,  and  Col.  John  Dix- 
well  took  refuge  in  Connecticut,  where  they  remained  concealed 
for  several  years.     Eventually  the  first  two  went  to  Hadley,  Massa- 
chusetts, where  they  lived  in  seclusion  in  the  house  of  a  clergyman 
until  their  death.     The  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  Bradshaw,  and 
Pride  were  dug  up  from  their  graves  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and 
hanged  in  chains  at  Tyburn.1     They  were  then  buried  at  the  foot 
of  the  gallows,  along  with  the  mouldering  remains  of  highway  rob- 
bers and  criminals  of  the  lowest  sort. 

524.  Religious  Persecution;    Covenanters;    Bunyan. — The 

Episcopal  form  of  worship  was  now  restored,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  next  few  years  severe  laws  were  passed  against  the  Noncon- 
formists, or  Dissenters.2  The  Corporation  Act  ordered  all  holders 
of  municipal  offices  to  renounce  the  Puritan  covenant,3  and  take  the 
sacrament  of  the  Church  of  England.  Next,  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
enforced  the  use  of  the  Episcopal  Prayer-book  upon  all  clergymen 
and  congregations.  This  was  followed  by  a  law4  forbidding  all 

1  Tyburn,  near  the  northeast  entrance  to  Hyde  Park,  London.     It  was  for  sev- 
eral centuries  the  chief  place  for  the  public  execution  of  felons. 

2  The  chief  Nonconformists,  aside  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  were :    i.  The 
Presbyterians.     2.  The  Independents,  or  Congregationalists.    3.  The  Baptists.    4. 
The  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers.    Originally  the  name  Nonconformist  was  given 
to  those  who  refused  to  conform  to  the  worship  of  the  Church  of  England,  or 
Episcopacy,  and  endeavored  to  change  it  to  suit  their  views.     Later,  when  the 
Nonconformists  gave  up  that  attempt,  and  asked  only  for  permission  to  worship 
according  to  their  own  convictions,  they  received  the  milder  name  of  Dissenters. 

3  Covenant :  the  oath  or  agreement  to  maintain  the  Presbyterian  faith  and  wor- 
ship.    It  originated  in  Scotland.    See  Paragraph  No.  490. 

4  Conventicle  Act :  from  conventicle,  a  religious  meeting  of  Dissenters. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  26l 

religious  assemblies  whatever,  except  such  as  worshipped  accord- 
ing to  the  established  church.  Lastly,  the  Five-Mile  Act  forbade 
all  dissenting  ministers  from  teaching  in  schools,  or  settling  within 
five  miles  of  an  incorporated  town. 

By  these  stringent  statutes  2000  Presbyterian  clergymen  were 
driven  from  their  parishes  in  a  single  day,  and  reduced  to  the 
direst  distress.  The  able-bodied  among  them  might  indeed  pick 
up  a  precarious  livelihood  by  hard  labor,  but  the  old  and  the  weak 
soon  found  their  refuge  in  the  grave. 

Those  who  dared  to  resist  these  intolerant  and  inhuman  laws 
were  punished  with  fines,  imprisonment,  or  slavery.  The  Scottish 
Parliament  —  a  Parliament,  says  Bishop  Burnet,  "mostly  drunk"  — 
vied  with  that  of  England  in  persecution  of  the  Dissenters. 

The  Covenanters  were  hunted  with  bugle  and  bloodhound,  like 
so  many  deer,  by  Claverhouse  and  his  men,  who  hanged  and 
drowned  without  mercy  those  who  gathered  secretly  in  glens  and 
caves  to  worship  God.  Even  when  nothing  certain  was  known 
against  those  who  were  seized,  there  was  no  trial.  The  father  of 
a  family  would  be  dragged  from  his  cottage  by  the  soldiers,  asked 
if  he  would  take  the  test  of  conformity  to  the  Church  of  England 
and  to  Charles's  government ;  if  not,  then  came  the  order,  "  Make 
ready  —  present  —  fire  !  "  —and  there  lay  the  corpse  of  tK5  rebel. 

Among  the  multitudes  who  suffered  in  England  for  religion's 
sake  was  a  poor  day-laborer  named  John  Bunyan.  He  had 
served  against  the  king  in  the  civil  wars,  and  later  had  become 
converted  to  Puritanism,  and  turned  exhorter  and  itinerant 
preacher.  He  was  arrested  and  convicted  of  having  "  devilishly 
and  perniciously  abstained  from  coming  to  church."  The  judge 
sentenced  him  to  Bedford  jail,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner  for 
twelve  years.  It  was,  he  says,  a  squalid  "  Denn."  l  But  in  his 
marvellous  dream  of  "  A  Pilgrimage  from  this  World  to  the  Next," 
he  forgot  the  misery  of  his  surroundings.  Like  Milton,  in  his 

1  "As  I  walk'd  through  the  wilderness  of  this  world,  I  lighted  on  a  certain 
place  where  was  a  Denn,  and  I  laid  me  down  in  that  place  to  sleep :  and  as  I 
slept  I  dreamed  a  dream."  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  edition  of  1678. 


262  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

blindness,  loneliness,  and  poverty,  he  looked  within  and  found 

that  — 

"  The  mind  is  its  own  place,  and  in  itself 
Can  make  a  heaven  of  hell."  * 

525.  Seizure  of  a  Dutch  Colony.  —  While  these  things  were 
going  on  in  England,  a  disgraceful  event  took  place  abroad.     The 
Dutch  had  established  a  colony  in  America,  and  built  a  town 
on  Manhattan  Island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River,  which 
they  called  New  Amsterdam. 

A  treaty  made  by  England  with  Holland  under  the  Common- 
wealth had  recognized  the  claims  of  the  Dutch  in  the  New  World. 

Charles,  however,  had  no  intention  of  keeping  faith  with  Hol- 
land ;  and  though  the  two  nations  were  at  peace,  resolved  to  seize 
the  territory.  He  accordingly  granted  it  to  his  brother  James, 
Duke  of  York,  and  sent  out  a  secret  expedition  to  capture  the 
colony  in  his  behalf. 

One  day  an  English  fleet  suddenly  appeared  in  the  harbor  of 
the  Dutch  town,  and  demanded  its  immediate  and  unconditional 
surrender.  The  governor  was  unprepared  to  make  any  defence, 
and  the  place  was  given  up.  Thus,  without  so  much  as  the  firing 
of  a  gun,  New  Amsterdam  got  the  name  of  New  York  in  honor  of 
the  man  who,  with  his  royal  brother,  had  with  characteristic 
treachery  planned  and  perpetrated  the  robbery. 

526.  The  Plague  and  the  Fire.  —  In  1665  a  terrible  outbreak 
of  the  plague  occurred  in  London,  which  spread  throughout  the 
kingdom.    All  who  could  fled  from  the  city.    Hundreds  of  houses 
were  left  vacant,  while  on  hundreds  more  a  cross  marked  on  the 
doors  in  red  chalk,  with  the  words  "  Lord  have  mercy  on  us," 
written  underneath,  told  where  the  work  of  death  was  going  on.2 

1  Paradise  Lost,  Book  I.  253. 

2  Pepys  writes  in  his  diary,  describing  the  beginning  of  the  plague:  "  The  /th  of 
June,  1665,  was  the  hottest  day  I  ever  felt  in  my  life.    This  day,  much  against  my 
will,  I  did  in  Drury  Lane  see  two  or  three  houses  with  a  red  cross  upon  the  door, 
and  '  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us  '  writ  there,  which  was  a  sad  sight."     Pepys'  Diary, 
1660-1669.     Defoe  wrote  a  journal  of  the  plague  in  1722,  based,  probably,  on  the 
reports  of  eyewitnesses.    It  gives  a  vivid  and  truthful  account  of  its  horrors. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  263 

This  pestilence  swept  off  over  a  hundred  thousand  victims  within 
six  months.  Among  the  few  brave  men  who  voluntarily  remained 
in  the  stricken  city  were  the  Puritan  ministers,  who  stayed  to  com- 
fort and  console  the  sick  and  dying.  After  the  plague  was  over, 
they  received  their  reward  in  those  acts  of  persecution  which  drove 
them  homeless  and  helpless  from  their  parishes  and  friends. 

The  dead-cart  had  hardly  ceased  to  go  its  rounds,  when  a  fire 
(1666)  broke  out,  of  which  Evelyn,  a  courtier,  who  witnessed  it, 
wrote,  that  it  "  was  not  to  be  outdone  until  the  final  conflagra- 
tion." *  By  it  the  city  of  London  proper  was  reduced  to  ruins, 
little  more  being  left  than  a  fringe  of  houses  on  the  northeast.2 

The  members  of  the  Cabal  gloated  over  the  destruction,  believ- 
ing that  now  that  London  was  destroyed,  the  king,  with  the  aid  of 
his  army,  might  easily  crush  out  political  liberty.  But  selfish  as 
Charles  and  his  brother  James  unquestionably  were,  they  were 
better  than  the  Cabal ;  for  both  worked  heroically  to  stop  the 
flames,  and  gave  liberally  to  feed  and  shelter  the  multitudes  who 
had  lost  everything. 

Great  as  the  calamity  was,  yet  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view  it 
did  great  good.  Nothing  short  of  fire  could  have  effectually 
cleansed  the  London  of  that  day,  and  so  put  a  stop  to  the  period- 
ical ravages  of  the  plague.  By  sweeping  away  miles  of  narrow 
streets  crowded  with  miserable  buildings  black  with  the  encrusted 
filth  of  ages,  the  conflagration  in  the  end  proved  friendly  to  health 
and  life. 

A  monument  near  London  Bridge  still  marks  the  spot  where 
the  flames  first  burst  out.  For  many  years  it  bore  an  inscription 
affirming  that  the  Catholics  kindled  them  in  order  to  be  revenged 
on  their  persecutors.  The  poet  Pope,  at  a  later  period,  exposed 
the  falsehood  in  the  lines  :  — 

"  Where  London's  column  pointing  towards  the  skies 
Like  a  tall  bully  lifts  its  head  and  lies."3 

1  Evelyn's  Diary,  1641-1705,  also  compare  Dryden's  Poem,  Annus  Mirabilis. 

2  See  Map  in  Loftic's  London,  Vol.  I.     See  also  Paragraph  No.  64,  note  2. 
8  Mora!  Essays,  Epistle  iii. 


264  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  most  famous  architect  of  the  period, 
rebuilt  the  city.  The  greater  part  of  it  had  been  of  wood,  but  it 
rose  from  the  ashes  brick  and  stone.  One  irreparable  loss  was 
the  old  Gothic  church  of  St.  Paul.  Wren  erected  the  present 
cathedral  on  the  foundations  of  the  ancient  structure.  He  lies 
buried  under  the  grand  dome  of  his  own  grandest  work.  On  a 
tablet  near  the  tomb  of  the  great  master-builder  one  reads  the 
inscription  in  Latin,  "  Reader,  if  you  seek  his  monument,  look 
around."  1 

527.  Invasion  by  the  Dutch. — The  new  city  had  not  risen  from 
the  ruins  of  the  old,  when  a  third  calamity  overtook  it.     Charles 
was  at  war  with  Holland.     The  contest  originally  grew  out  of  the 
rivalry  of  the  two  countries  in  their  efforts  to  get  the  exclusive 
possession  of  foreign  trade.      Parliament  granted  the  king  large 
sums  of  money  to  build  and  equip  a  navy,  but  the  pleasure-loving 
monarch  wasted  it  in  dissipation.     The  few  ships  he  had  were 
rotten  old  hulks,  but  half  provisioned,  with  crews  ready  to  mutiny 
because  they  could  not  get  their  pay.     A  Dutch  fleet,  manned  in 
part  by  English  sailors  who  had  deserted  in  disgust,  because  when 
they  asked  for  dollars  to  support   their  families  they  got   only 
worthless  government  tickets,  now  sailed  up  the  Thames.     There 
was  no  force  to  oppose  them.     They  burnt  some  half-built  men-of- 
war,  threatened  to  blockade  London,  and  made  their  own  terms 
of  peace. 

528.  Treaty  of  Dover;  the  King  robs  the  Exchequer.  —  But 

another  and  still  deeper  disgrace  was  at  hand.  The  chief  ambi- 
tion of  Charles  was  to  rule  without  a  Parliament ;  without  supplies 
of  money  he  found  this  impossible.  A  way  to  accomplish  the 
desired  end  now  presented  itself. 

Louis  XIV.  of  France,  then  the  most  powerful  monarch  in 
Europe,  wished  to  conquer  Holland,  with  the  double  object  of 
extending  his  own  kingdom  and  the  power  of  Romanism.  He 


1  "  Lector,  si  monumentum  requiris,  circumspice." 


DIVINE    RIGHT   OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  265 

saw  in  Charles  the  tool  he  wanted  to  gain  this  end.  By  the  secret 
treaty  of  Dover,  Louis  bribed  the  English  king  with  a  gift  of 
^300,000  to  help  him  carry  out  his  scheme.  Thus,  without  the 
knowledge  of  Parliament,  Charles  deliberately  sold  himself  to  the 
French  sovereign  in  his  plot  to  destroy  the  political  liberty  and 
Protestant  faith  of  Holland.  In  addition  to  the  above  sum,  it  was 
furthermore  agreed  that  Louis  should  pay  Charles  a  pension  of 
^200,000  a  year  from  the  date  when  the  latter  should  openly 
avow  himself  a  Catholic. 

True  to  his  infamous  contract,  Charles  provoked  a  new  war  with 
the  Dutch,  but  found  that  he  needed  more  money  to  prosecute  it 
successfully.  Not  knowing  where  to  borrow,  he  determined  to 
steal  it.  Various  prominent  London  merchants  and  bankers  had 
lent  to  the  government  large  sums  on  promise  of  repayment  from 
the  taxes.  A  part  of  the  revenue  amounting  to  about  ^1,300,- 
ooo,  a  sum  equal  to  at  least  $10,000,000  now,  had  been  deposited 
in  the  exchequer,  or  government  treasury,  to  meet  the  obligation. 
The  king  seized  this  money,1  partly  for  his  needs,  but  chiefly  for 
his  vices.  This  act  of  treachery  caused  a  financial  panic  which 
shook  London  to  its  foundations  and  ruined  great  numbers  of 
people. 

529.  More  Money  Schemes.  —  By  declaring  war  against  Hol- 
land, Charles  had  now  fulfilled  the  first  part  of  his  secret  treaty 
with  Louis,  but  he  was  afraid  to  undertake  the  second  part  and 
openly  declare  himself  a  convert  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He, 
however,  did  the  next  thing  to  it,  by  issuing  a  proclamation  of  in- 
dulgence to  all  religions,  under  cover  of  which  he  intended  to 
show  especial  favor  to  the  Catholics. 

To  offset  this  proclamation,  Parliament  at  once  passed  a  law 
requiring  every  government  officer  to  acknowledge  himself  a  Prot- 
estant. Charles  became  alarmed  at  this  decided  stand,  and  now 
tried  to  conciliate  Parliament,  and  coax  from  them  another  grant 

1  "'  Rob  me  the  exchequer,  Ha!,'  said  the  king  to  his  favorite  minister;  then  'all 
went  merry  as  a  marriage  bell.'  "  Evelyn's  Diary,  10  Oct.,  1671. 


266  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

of  money  by  marrying  his  niece,  the  Princess  Mary,  to  William  of 
Orange,  president  of  the  Dutch  republic,  and  head  of  the  Protes- 
tant party  on  the  continent. 

530.  The  "  Popish  Plot."  —  While  the  king  was  playing  this 
double  part,  an  infamous  scoundrel,  named  Titus  Gates,  whose 
hideous  face  was  but  the  counterpart  of  a  still  more  hideous  char- 
acter, pretended  that  he  had  discovered  a  terrible  plot.     Accord- 
ing to  his  account,  the  Catholics  had  formed  a  conspiracy  to  burn 
London,  massacre  the  inhabitants,  kill  the  king,  and  restore  the 
Romanist  religion.     The  news  of  this  alleged  discovery  caused  an 
excitement  which  soon  grew  into  a  sort  of  popular  madness.    The 
memory  of  the  great  fire  was  still  fresh  in  people's  minds.     In 
their  imagination  they  now  saw  those  scenes  of  horror  repeated, 
with  wholesale  murder  added.     Great  numbers  of  innocent  per- 
sons were  thrown  into  prison,  and  many  executed.     As  time  went 
on,  the  terror  seemed  to  increase.     With  its  increase,  Gates  grew 
bolder  in  his  accusations.     Chief-Justice  Scroggs  showed  himself 
an  eager  abettor  of  the  miserable  wretch  who  swore  away  men's 
lives  for  the  sake  of  the  notoriety  it  gave  him.     In  the  extrava- 
gance of  his  presumption  Gates  dared  even  to  accuse  the  queen 
of  an  attempt  to  poison  Charles.     The  craze,  however,  had  at  last 
begun  to  abate  somewhat,  and  no  action  was  taken. 

An  attempt  was  now  made  to  pass  a  law  called  the  "  Exclusion 
Bill,"  debarring  Charles's  brother  James,  the  Catholic  Duke  of 
York,  from  succeeding  to  the  crown ;  but  though  voted  by  the 
Commons,  it  was  defeated  by  the  Lords.  A  second  measure, 
however,  received  the  sanction  of  both  Houses,  by  which  Roman- 
ists were  declared  incapable  of  sitting  in  Parliament ;  and  from 
this  date  they  remained  shut  out  from  all  legislative  power  and 
from  all  civil  and  corporate  offices  for  a  period  of  over  a  century 
and  a  half. 

531 .  Political  Parties.  —  It  was  about  this  time  that  the  names 
"Whig"  and  "Tory"  began  to  be  given  to  two  political  parties, 
which  soon  became  very  powerful,  and  which  have  ever  since 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  267 

divided  the  Parliamentary  government  of  the  country  between 
them. 

The  term  "  Whig  "  was  originally  given  by  way  of  reproach  to 
the  Scotch  Puritans,  or  Covenanters,  who  refused  to  accept  the 
Episcopacy  which  Charles  I.  endeavored  to  impose  upon  them.1 
"Tory,"  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  nickname  which  appears  to  have 
first  been  applied  to  the  Roman  Catholic  outlaws  of  Ireland,  who 
were  regarded  as  both  robbers  and  rebels. 

This  latter  name  was  now  given  to  those  who  supported  the 
claims  of  the  king's  brother  James,  the  Roman  Catholic  Duke  of 
York,  as  successor  to  the  throne  ;  while  that  of  Whig  was  borne  by 
those  who  were  endeavoring  to  exclude  him,  and  secure  a  Protes- 
tant successor.2  The  excitement  over  this  question  threatened  at 
one  period  to  bring  on  another  civil  war.  In  his  fury  against  the 
Whigs,  Charles  revoked  the  charters  of  London  and  many  other 
cities,  which  were  re-granted  only  on  terms  agreeable  to  the  Tories. 
An  actual  outbreak  against  the  government  would  probably  have 
occurred  had  it  not  been  for  the  discovery  of  a  new  conspiracy, 
which  resulted  in  a  reaction  favorable  to  the  crown. 

532.  The  Rye  House  Plot. — This  conspiracy,  known  as  the 
"  Rye  House  Plot,"  had  for  its  object  the  murder  of  Charles  and 
his  brother  James  at  a  place  called  the  Rye  House,  in  Hertford- 
shire, not  far  from  London.  It  was  concocted  by  a  number  of 
violent  Whigs,  who,  in  their  disappointment  respecting  the  passage 
of  the  Exclusion  Bill,  took  this  method  of  securing  their  ends. 

It  is  said  that  they  intended  placing  on  the  throne  James, 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles,  who  was  popularly 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  490. 

2  Politically,  the  Whigs  and  Tories  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  succes- 
sors of  the  Roundheads  and  Cavaliers  of  the  civil  war,  the  former  seeking  to  limit 
the  power  of  the  crown;   the  latter,  to  extend  it.    At  the  Restoration  (1660),  the 
Cavaliers  were  all-powerful ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  dispute  on  the  Exclusion  Bill 
(1679),  the  Roundhead,  or  Peoples'  party  had  revived.    On  account  of  their  peti- 
tioning the  king  to  summon  a  new  Parliament,  by  means  of  which  they  hoped  to 
carry  the  bill  shutting  out  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  throne,  they  were  called 
"  Petitioners."  and  later,  Whigs ;  while  those  who  expressed  their  abhorrence  ol  their 
efforts  were  called  "  Abhorrers,"  and  aftcuvard,  Tories. 


268  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

known  as  the  "  Protestant  Duke."  Algernon  Sidney,  Lord  Rus- 
sell, and  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who  were  prominent  advocates  of  the 
bill,  were  arrested  for  participating  in  the  plot.  Essex  committed 
suicide  in  the  Tower ;  Sidney  and  Russell  were  tried,  convicted, 
and  sentenced  to  death  on  insufficient  evidence.  Both  were  un- 
questionably innocent.  They  died  martyrs  to  the  cause  of  liberty, 
—  Russell,  with  the  fortitude  of  a  Christian ;  Sidney,  with  the 
calmness  of  a  philosopher.  The  Duke  of  Monmouth,  who  was 
supposed  to  be  implicated  in  the  plot,  was  banished  to  Holland. 

533.  The    Royal    Society.  —  During    this    reign    the    Royal 
Society,  for  the  discussion  of  scientific  questions,  was  organized. 
In  an  age  when  thousands  of  well-informed  people  still  cherished 
a  lingering  belief  that  lead  might  be  changed  into  gold  ;  that  some 
medicine  might  be  discovered  which  would  cure  every  disease, 
and  prevent  old  age,  that  worst  disease  of  all ;  when  every  cross- 
grained  old  woman  was  suspected  of  witchcraft,  and  was  liable  to 
be  tortured  and  hanged  on  that  suspicion ;    the  formation  of  an 
association  to  study  physical  facts  was  most  significant.     It  showed 
that  the  time  had  come  when,  instead  of  guessing  what  might  be, 
men  were  at  last  beginning  to  resolve  to  know  what  actually  is. 
Under  the  encouragement  given  by  this  society,  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  philosopher  published  a  work  which  demonstrated 
the  unity  of  the  universe,  by  proving  that  the  same  law  governs  the 
falling  of  an  apple  and  the  movements  of  the  planets  in  their 
orbits.     It  was  with  reference  to  that  wonderful  discovery  of  the 
all-pervading  power  of  gravitation,   which  shapes   and   holds   in 
its  control   the  drop  of  dew  before  our  eyes,  and  the  farthest 
star  shining  in  the  heavens,  that  the  poet   Pope  suggested  the 
epitaph  which  should   be  graven   on   the   tomb  in  Westminster 
Abbey :  — 

"Nature  and  Nature's  laws  lay  hid  in  night; 
God  said,  '  Let  Newton  be  ! '  and  all  was  light." 

534.  Chief  Political  Reforms.  — As  the  age  did  not  stand  still 
with  respect  to  progress  in  knowledge,  so  it  was  not  wholly  unsuc- 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  269 

cessful  in  attempts  at  political  reform.  The  chief  measures  were, 
first,  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,1  which  provided  that  no  subject 
should  be  detained  in  prison  except  by  due  process  of  law,  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  arbitrary  confinement  of  men  for  months, 
and  years  even,  without  conviction  of  guilt  or  even  form  of  trial. 
The  next  reform  was  the  abolition  of  the  king's  right  to  feudal 
dues  and  service,  by  which  he  was  accustomed  to  extort  as  much 
as  possible  from  his  subjects,2  and  the  substitution  of  a  fixed  yearly 
allowance,  raised  by  tax,  of  ;£i,2OO,ooo.3  This  change  may  be 
considered  to  have  practically  abolished  the  feudal  system  in  Eng- 
land, so  far  as  the  crown  is  concerned,  though  the  law  still  re- 
tains many  remnants  of  it  with  respect  to  the  relation  of  land- 
lord and  tenant. 

535.  Death  of  Charles.  —  In  1685  the  reign  came  suddenly  to 
an  end.     Evelyn  tells  us  in  his  Diary  that  he  was  present  at  the 
royal  court  at  the  Palace  of  Whitehall  on  Sunday  morning,  the  last 
of  January  of  that  year.    There  he  saw  the  king  sitting  in  the  grand 
banqueting-room,  chatting  gayly  with  three  famous  court  beauties, 
"  while  a  crowd  of  richly  dressed  nobles  were  gathered  around  a 
gambling-table  heaped  with  gold.     Six  days  after,"  as  he  expresses 
it,  "  all  was  in  the  dust."     Charles  died  a  Roman  Catholic,  his 
brother  James  having  smuggled  a  priest  into  his  chamber  in  time 
to  hear  his  confession  and  grant  him  absolution.     Certainly  few 
English  rulers  have  stood  in  greater  need  of  both. 

536.  Summary. — The  chief  events  of  the   period  were  the 
persecution  of  the  Puritans,  the  Plague  and  Fire  of  London,  the 
Popish  and  Rye  House  Plots,  and  the  Dutch  Wars.     Aside  from 


1  Habeas  Corpus  ad  subjiciendum  (1679)  (that  you  have  the  body  to  answer)  : 
this  writ  is  addressed  by  the  judge  to  him  who  detains  another  in  custody,  com- 
manding him  to  bring  him  into  court  and  show  why  he  is  restrained  of  his  liberty. 

a  See  Paragraph  No.  200.     See  also  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  II.  76. 

3  This  tax  should  have  been  levied  on  the  landed  proprietors  who  had  been 
subject  to  the  feudal  dues,  but  they  evaded  it,  and  by  getting  it  assessed  as  an  excise 
duty  on  beer  and  spirits,  they  compelled  the  body  of  the  people  to  bear  the  burden 
for  them. 


2/O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

these,  the  reign  presents  two  leading  points  :  i .  The  policy  of  the 
king;  2.  That  of  the  nation.  Charles,  as  we  have  seen,  lived 
solely  to  gratify  his  inordinate  love  of  pleasure.  For  that,  he 
wasted  the  revenue,  robbed  the  exchequer,  and  cheated  the  navy ; 
for  that,  he  secretly  sold  himself  to  France,  made  war  on  Holland, 
and  shamefully  deceived  both  Parliament  and  people.  In  so  far, 
then,  as  Charles  had  an  object,  it  began  and  ended  with  himself. 
Therein,  he  stood  lower  than  his  father,  who  at  least  conscien- 
tiously believed  in  the  Divine  Right  of  kings  and  their  accounta- 
bility to  the  Almighty. 

The  policy  of  the  nation,  on  the  other  hand,  was  divided.  The 
Whigs  were  determined  to  limit  the  power  of  the  crown,  and 
secure  at  all  hazards  a  Protestant  successor.  The  Tories  were 
equally  resolved  to  check  the  growing  power  of  the  people,  and 
preserve  the  hereditary  order  of  succession  without  any  immediate 
regard  to  the  religious  question.  Beneath  these  issues  both  parties 
had  a  common  object,  which  was  to  maintain  the  national  Episco- 
pal church,  and  the  monarchical  system  of  government,  preferring 
rather  to  cherish  patriotism  through  loyalty  to  a  personal  sovereign, 
than  patriotism  alone  through  devotion  to  a  democratic  republic. 

JAMES  II.  — 1685-1689. 

537.  Accession  of  James  II. ;  his  Two  Objects ;  Gates  gets  his 
Deserts.  —  James,  Duke  of  York,  brother  of  the  late  king,  now 
came  to  the  throne.  His  first  great  ambition  was  to  rule  inde- 
pendently of  Parliament ;  in  other  words,  to  have  his  own  way  in 
everything;  his  second,  which  was,  if  possible,  still  nearer  his 
heart,  was  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  England. 
He  began  that  restoration  at  once ;  and  on  the  Easter  Sunday 
preceding  his  coronation,  "  the  worship  of  the  church  of  Rome 
was  once  more,  after  an  interval  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years,  performed  at  Westminster  with  royal  splendor." ' 

Not  long  after,  James  had  the  miscreant  Gates  brought  to  trial 

1  Macaulay's  England. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  2/1 

for  the  perjuries  he  had  committed  in  connection  with  the  Popish 
Plot.  He  was  found  guilty,  and  the  community  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  seeing  him  publicly  whipped  through  London  with  such 
terrible  severity  that  "  the  blood  ran  in  rivulets,"  and  a  few  more 
strokes  of  the  lash  would  have  ended  his  worthless  life. 

538.  Monmouth's  Rebellion;  Sedgemoor.  —  At  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  the  Rye  House  Plot,  a  number  of  Whigs  who  were 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy  fled  to  Holland,  where  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth  had  also  gone  when  banished.  Four  months  after  the 
accession  of  James,  the  duke,  aided  by  these  refugees  and  by  a  small 
force  which  he  had  gathered  in  the  Low  Countries,  resolved  to  in- 
vade England  and  demand  the  crown,  in  the  belief  that  a  large  part 
of  the  nation  would  look  upon  him  as  representing  the  cause  of 
Protestantism,  and  would  therefore  rally  to  his  support.  He  landed 
at  Lyme  on  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire,  and  there  issued  an  absurd 
proclamation  declaring  James  to  be  a  usurper,  tyrant,  and  mur- 
derer, who  had  set  the  great  fire  of  London,  cut  the  throat  of 
Essex,1  and  poisoned  Charles  II.  !  At  Taunton,  in  Somersetshire,  a 
procession  of  welcome  headed  by  a  lady  carrying  a  Bible  met  the 
duke,  and  presented  him  with  the  book  in  behalf  of  the  Protestant 
faith.  He  received  it,  saying,  "  I  come  to  defend  the  truths  con- 
tained in  this  volume,  and  to  seal  them,  if  it  must  be  so,  with  my 
blood."  Shortly  after,  he  proclaimed  himself  sovereign  of  Great 
Britain  under  the  title  of  King  Monmouth.  Many  of  the  country 
people  now  joined  him,  but  the  Whig  nobles,  on  whose  help  he 
had  counted,  stood  aloof,  alienated  doubtless  by  the  ridiculous 
charges  he  had  made  against  James. 

At  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor,  in  Somersetshire  (1685),  "King 
Monmouth,"  with  his  hastily  gathered  forces,  was  utterly  routed, 
and  he  himself  was  soon  after  captured  hiding  in  a  ditch.  He 
desired  to  be  taken  to  the  king.  His  request  was  granted.  When 
he  entered  his  uncle's  presence,  he  threw  himself  down  and  crawled 
to  his  feet,  weeping  and  begging  piteously  for  life  —  only  life  — 

-    *  See  Paragraph  No.  532. 


2/2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

on  any  terms,  however  hard.  He  denied  that  he  had  issued  the 
lying  proclamation  published  at  Lyme ;  he  denied  that  he  had 
sought  the  crown  of  his  own  free  will ;  finally,  in  an  agony  of  sup- 
plication, he  hinted  that  he  would  even  renounce  Protestantism  if 
thereby  he  might  escape  death.  James  told  him  that  he  should 
have  the  service  of  a  Catholic  priest,  but  would  promise  nothing 
more.  Monmouth  grovelled  and  pleaded,  but  the  king  turned 
away  in  silence.  Then  the  duke,  seeing  that  all  his  efforts  were 
vain,  rose  to  his  feet  and  regained  his  manhood.  He  was  forthwith 
sent  to  the  Tower,  and  shortly  after  to  execution.  His  headless 
body  was  buried  under  the  communion-table  of  that  little  chapel 
of  St.  Peter  within  the  Tower  grounds,  where  the  remains  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  many  other 
royal  victims  are  gathered,  and  of  which,  it  has  been  well  said,  that 
no  sadder  spot  exists  on  earth,  "  since  there  death  is  associated 
with  whatever  is  darkest  in  human  nature  and  human  destiny."  1 

After  Monmouth's  death  there  were  no  further  attempts  at 
insurrection,  and  the  struggle  at  Sedgemoor  remains  the  last 
encounter  worthy  of  the  name  of  battle  fought  on  English  soil. 

539.  The  Bloody  Assizes.  —  The  defeat  of  the  insurgents  who 
had  rallied  under  Monmouth's  flag  was  followed  by  a  series  of 
trials  known,  from  their  results,  as  the  "  Bloody  Assizes." 2  They 
were  conducted  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  assisted  by  a  band  of  soldiers 
under  Colonel  Kirke,  ironically  called,  from  their  ferocity,  "  Kirke's 
Lambs."  But  of  the  two,  Jeffreys  was  the  more  to  be  dreaded.  He 
was  by  nature  cruel,  and  enjoyed  the  spectacle  of  mental  as  well  as 
bodily  anguish.  As  he  himself  said,  he  delighted  to  give  those  who 
had  the  misfortune  to  appear  before  him  "  a  lick  with  the  rough  side 
of  his  tongue,"  preparatory  to  roaring  out  the  sentence  of  torture 
or  death,  in  which  he  delighted  still  more.  All  who  were  in  the 
remotest  way  implicated  in  the  late  rising  were  now  hunted 

1  Macaulay's  England. 

2  Assizes  (from  the  French  asseoir,  to  sit  or  set) :  sessions  of  a  court ;  also  used 
in  the  singular,  of  a  decree  or  law. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  273 

down  and  brought  to  a  trial  which  was  but  a  mockery  of  justice. 
No  one  was  permitted  to  defend  himself.  In  fact,  defence  would 
nave  been  useless  against  the  blind  fury  of  such  a  judge.  The 
threshold  of  the  court  was  to  most  that  crossed  it  the  threshold 
of  the  grave.  A  gentleman  present  at  one  of  these  scenes  of 
slaughter,  touched  with  pity  at  the  condition  of  a  trembling  old 
man  called  up  for  sentence,  ventured  to  put  in  a  word  in  his 
behalf.  "  My  Lord,"  said  he  to  Jeffreys,  "  this  poor  creature  is 
dependent  on  the  parish."  "  Don't  trouble  yourself,"  cried  the 
judge  ;  "  I  will  soon  ease  the  parish  of  the  burden,"  and  ordered 
the  officers  to  execute  him  at  once.  Those  who  escaped  death 
were  often  still  more  to  be  pitied.  A  young  man  was  sentenced 
to  be  imprisoned  for  seven  years,  and  to  be  whipped  once  a  year 
through  every  market  town  in  the  county.  In  his  despair,  he 
petitioned  the  king  to  grant  him  the  favor  of  being  hanged.  The 
petition  was  refused,  but  a  partial  remission  of  the  punishment 
was  at  length  gained  by  bribing  the  court ;  for  Jeffreys,  though  his 
heart  was  shut  against  mercy,  always  had  his  pockets  open  for 
gain.  Alice  Lisle,  an  aged  woman,  who,  out  of  pity,  had  con- 
cealed two  men  flying  from  the  king's  vengeance,  was  condemned 
to  be  burned  alive ;  and  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  the 
clergy  of  Winchester  Cathedral  succeeded  in  getting  the  sentence 
commuted  to  beheading. 

As  the  work  went  on,  the  spirits  of  Jeffreys  rose  higher  and 
higher.  He  laughed,  shouted,  joked,  and  swore  like  a  drunken 
man.  When  the  court  had  finished  its  sittings,  more  than  a  thou- 
sand persons  had  been  brutally  scourged,  sold  as  slave.;,  hanged,  or 
beheaded.  The  guide-posts  of  the  highways  were  converted  into 
gibbets,  from  which  blackened  corpses  swung  in  chains,  and  from 
every  church-tower  in  Somersetshire  ghastly  heads  looked  down 
on  those  who  gathered  there  to  worship  God ;  in  fact,  so  many 
bodies  were  exposed,  that  the  whole  air  was  "  tainted  with  corrup- 
tion and  death." 

Not  satisfied  with  vengeance  alone,  Jeffreys  and  his  friends 
made  these  trials  a  means  of  speculation.  Batches  of  rebels  were 


2/4  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

given  as  presents  to  courtiers,  who  sold  them  to  be  worked  and 
flogged  to  death  on  West  India  plantations;  and  the  queen's 
maids  of  honor  extorted  large  sums  of  money  for  the  pardon  of  a 
number  of  country  school-girls  who  had  been  convicted  of  pre- 
senting Monmouth  with  a  royal  flag  at  Taunton.  On  the  return  of 
Jeffreys  to  London  after  this  carnival  of  blood,  his  father  was  so 
horrified  at  his  cruelty  that  he  forbade  him  to  enter  his  house. 
James,  on  the  contrary,  testified  his  approval  by  making  Jeffreys 
lord  chancellor  of  the  realm,  at  the  same  time  mildly  censuring 
him  for  not  having  shown  greater  severity  !  The  new  lord  chan- 
cellor testified  his  gratitude  to  his  royal  master  by  procuring  the 
murder,  by  means  of  a  packed  jury,  of  Alderman  Cornish,  a  promi- 
nent London  Whig,  who  was  especially  hated  by  the  king  on  account 
of  his  support  of  that  Exclusion  Bill  which  was  intended  to  shut 
James  out  from  the  throne.  On  the  same  day  on  which  Cornish 
was  executed,  Jeffreys  also  had  the  satisfaction  of  having  Elizabeth 
Gaunt  burned  alive  at  Tyburn  for  having  assisted  one  of  the  Rye 
House  conspirators  to  escape  who  had  fought  for  Monmouth  at 
Sedgemoor. 

540.  The  King  makes  Further  Attempts  to  re-establish 
Romanism ;  Declaration  of  Indulgence ;  Oxford.  —  An  event 
occurred  about  this  time  which  encouraged  James  to  make  a  more 
decided  attempt  to  restore  Romanism.  In  1598  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  the  Protestants  of  his  kingdom  liberty  of  worship, 
by  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  In  1685  Louis  XIV.  deliberately  revoked 
it.  By  that  short-sighted  act  the  Huguenots,  or  French  Protes- 
tants, were  exposed  to  cruel  persecution,  and  thousands  of  them 
fled  to  England  and  America.  James  now  resolved  to  profit  by 
the  example  set  him  by  Louis,  and  if  not  like  the  French  mon- 
arch to  drive  the  Protestants  out  of  Great  Britain,  at  least  to  restore 
the  country  to  its  allegiance  to  Rome.  He  began,  contrary  to  law, 
by  putting  Catholics  into  important  offices  in  both  church  and 
state.2  He  furthermore  established  an  army  of  13,000  men 

1  Nantes  (Nantz).  2  See  Paragraph  No.  530. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  275 

on  Hounslow  Heath,  just  outside  London,  to  hold  the  city  in  sub- 
jection in  case  there  should  be  a  disposition  to  rebel.  He  next 
recalled  the  Protestant  Duke  of  Ormond,  governor  of  Ireland,  and 
in  his  place  as  lord  deputy,  sent  Talbot,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  a 
Romanist  of  notoriously  bad  character.  Tyrconnel  had  orders  to 
recruit  an  Irish  Roman  Catholic  army  to  aid  the  king  in  carrying 
out  his  designs.  He  raised  some  soldiers,  but  he  also  raised  that 
famous  song  of  "  Lilli  Burlero,"  by  which,  as  its  author  boasted, 
James  was  eventually  "sung  out  of  his  kingdom."1  Having, 
meanwhile,  got  the  courts  completely  under  his  control  through 
the  appointment  of  judges  in  sympathy  with  Jeffreys  and  with  him- 
self, the  king  issued  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  suspending  all 
penal  laws  against  both  Roman  Catholics  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Protestant  Dissenters  on  the  other.  The  latter,  however,  suspect- 
ing that  this  apparently  liberal  measure  was  simply  a  trick  to 
establish  Romanism,  refused  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  and  de- 
nounced it  as  an  open  violation  of  the  Constitution. 

James  next  proceeded,  by  means  of  the  tyrannical  High  Com- 
mission Court,  which  he  had  revived,2  to  bring  the  chief  college  at 
Oxford  under  Catholic  control.  The  president  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege having  died,  the  Fellows  were  considering  the  choice  of  a 
successor.  The  king  ordered  them  to  elect  a  Romanist,  and 
named  at  first  a  man  of  ill  repute.  The  Fellows  refused  to 
obey,  and  elected  a  Protestant.  James  ejected  the  new  presi- 

1  Lord  Wharton,  a  prominent  English  Whig,  was  the  author  of  this  satirical 
political  ballad,  which,  it  is  said,  was  sung  and  whistled  from  one  end  of  England 
to  the  other,  in  derision  of  the  king's  policy.  It  undoubtedly  had  a  powerful  pop- 
ular influence  in  bringing  on  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

The  ballad  began  :  — 

"  Ho,  Brother  Teague,  dost  hear  de  decree  ? 

Lilli  Burlero,  bullen  a-la, 
Dat  we  shall  have  a  new  deputie, 
Lilli  Burlero,  bullen  a-la." 

The  refrain,  "Lilli  Burlero,"  etc.  (also  written  "  Lillibullero  "),  is  said  to  have 
been  the  watchword  used  by  the  Irish  Catholics  when  they  rose  against  the  Prot- 
estants of  Ulster  in  1641.  See  Wilkins's  Political  Songs,  Vol.  I. 

*  See  Paragraph  No.  491. 


2/6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

dent,  and  drove  out  the  Fellows,  leaving  them  to  depend  on  the 
charity  of  the  neighboring  country  gentlemen  for  their  support. 
But  the  king,  in  attacking  the  rights  of  the  college,  had  "  run  his 
head  against  a  wall," *  as  he  soon  discovered  to  his  sorrow.  His 
temporary  success,  however,  emboldened  him  to  issue  a  second 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  of  which  the  real  object,  like  that  of 
the  first,  was  to  put  Roman  Catholics  into  still  higher  positions  of 
trust  and  power. 

541.  The  Petition  of  the  Seven  Bishops.  —  He  commanded 
the  clergy  throughout  the  realm  to  read  this  declaration  on  a 
given  Sunday  from  their  pulpits.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
accompanied  by  six  bishops,  petitioned  the  king  to  be  excused 
from  reading  it  in  their  churches.  The  king  refused  to  consider 
the  petition.  When  the  day  came,  hardly  a  clergyman  read  the 
paper,  and  in  the  few  cases  in  which  they  did,  the  congregation 
rose  and  left  rather  than  listen  to  it. 

Furious  at  such  an  unexpected  result,  James  ordered  the  refrac- 
tory bishops  to  be  sent  to  the  Tower.  The  whole  country  now 
seemed  to  turn  against  the  king.  By  his  obstinate  folly  James 
had  succeeded  in  making  enemies  of  all  classes,  not  only  of  the 
Whig  Roundheads  who  had  fought  against  his  father  in  the  civil 
war,  but  also  of  the  Tory  Cavaliers  who  had  fought  for  him.  One 
of  the  imprisoned  bishops  was  Trelawney  of  Bristol.  He  was  a 
native  of  Cornwall.  The  news  of  his  incarceration  roused  the 
rough,  independent,  population  of  that  county.  From  one  end 
of  it  to  the  other  the  people  were  now  heard  singing :  -»- 

"  And  shall  Trelawney  die,  and  shall  Trelawney  die  ? 
There's  thirty  thousand  Cornishmen  will  know  the  reason  why." 

Then  the  miners  took  up  the  words,  and  beneath  the  hills  and 
fields  the  ominous  echo  was  heard  :  — 

1  "  What  building  is  that?  "asked  the  Duke  of  Wellington  of  his  companion, 
Mr.  Croker,  pointing,  as  he  spoke,  to  Magdalen  College  wall,  just  as  they  entered 
the  city  in  1834.  "  That  is  the  wall  which  James  II.  ran  his  head  against,"  was  the 
reply. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  277 

"And  shall  Trelawney  die,  and  shall  Trelawney  die? 
There's  twenty  thousand  underground  will  know  the  reason  why." 

On  their  trial  the  popular  feeling  in  favor  of  the  bishops  was  so 
strong  that  not  even  James's  servile  judges  dared  to  openly  use 
their  influence  to  convict  them.  When  the  case  was  given  to  the 
jury,  it  is  said  that  the  largest  and  most  robust  man  of  the  twelve 
rose  and  said  to  the  rest :  "  Look  at  me  !  I  am  bigger  than  any 
of  you,  but  before  I  will  bring  in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  I  will  stay 
here  until  I  am  no  thicker  than  a  tobacco-pipe."  That  decided 
the  matter,  and  the  bishops  were  acquitted.  The  news  was 
received  in  London  like  the  tidings  of  some  great  victory,  with 
shouts  of  joy,  illuminations,  and  bonfires. 

542.   Birth  of  a  Prince;  Invitation  to  William  of  Orange. — 

But  just  before  the  acquittal  an  event  took  place  which  changed 
everything  and  brought  on  the  memorable  Revolution  of  1688. 

Up  to  this  time  the  succession  to  the  throne  after  James  rested 
with  his  two  daughters,  —  Mary,  who  had  married  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,1  and  resided  in  Holland ;  and  her  younger  sister  Anne, 
who  had  married  George,  Prince  of  Denmark,  and  was  then  living 
in  London.  Both  of  the  daughters  were  zealous  Protestants,  and 
the  expectation  that  one  of  them  would  ascend  the  English  throne 
on  the  king's  death  had  kept  the  people  comparatively  quiet 
under  the  efforts  of  James  to  restore  Catholicism.  But  while  the 
bishops  were  in  prison  awaiting  trial  the  alarming  intelligence 
was  spread  that  a  son  had  been  born  to  the  king.  If  true, 
he  would  now  be  the  next  heir  to  the  crown,  and  would  in  all 
probability  be  educated  and  come  to  power  a  Catholic.  This 
prospect  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  Great  numbers  of  the 
people,  especially  the  Whigs,  believed  the  whole  matter  an 
imposition,  and  it  was  commonly  reported  that  the  pretended 
prince  was  not  the.  true  son  of  the  king  and  queen,  but  a  child 
that  had  been  smuggled  into  the  palace  to  deceive  the  nation. 

On  the  very  day  that  the  bishops  were  set  at  liberty,  seven  of 

1  Mary  :  see  Paragraph  No.  529. 


2/8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  leading  nobility  and  gentry,  representing  both  political  parties, 
seconded  by  the  city  of  London,  sent  a  secret  invitation  to 
William,  Prince  of  Orange,  urging  him  to  come  over  with  an 
army  to  defend  his  wife  Mary's  claim  to  the  English  throne 
and  to  protect  the  liberty  of  the  English  people. 

William,  after  due  consideration,  decided  to  accept  the  invita- 
tion, which  was  probably  not  unexpected  on  his  part.  He  was 
confirmed  in  his  decision  not  only  by  the  cordial  approval  of  the 
leading  Catholic  princes  of  Europe,*  but  also  by  the  Pope  himself, 
who  had  more  than  once  expressed  his  emphatic  disgust  at 
the  foolish  rashness  of  King  James.1 

543.  The  Coming  of  William,  and  Flight  of  James.  —  William 
landed  with  14,000  troops.  It  was  the  fifth  and  last  great  land- 
ing in  the  history  of  England.2  He  declared  that  he  came 
in  Mary's  interest  and  that  of  the  English  nation,  to  secure  a 
free  and  legal  Parliament  which  should  decide  the  question  of 
the  succession.  James  endeavored  to  rally  a  force  to  resist  him, 
but  Lord  John  Churchill,  afterward  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
the  king's  son-in-law,  Prince  George,  both  secretly  went  over  to 
William's  side.  His  troops  likewise  deserted,  and  finally  even  his 
daughter  Anne  went  over  to  the  enemy.  "  Now  God  help  me  !  " 
exclaimed  James,  in  despair,  "  for  my  own  children  forsake  me  !  " 
The  queen  had  already  fled  to  France,  taking  with  her  her  infant 
son,  the  unfortunate  James  Edward,  whose  birth  had  caused  the 
revolution,  and  who,  instead  of  a  kingdom,  inherited  nothing  but 
the  nickname  of  "  Pretender,"  which  he  in  turn  transmitted  to  his 
son.3  King  James  soon  followed  his  wife. 

As  he  crossed  the  Thames  in  a  boat  by  night,  James  threw  the 
great  seal  of  state  into  the  river,  in  the  vain  hope  that  without  it  a 

1  Guizot,  Histoire  de  Charles  I.  (Discours  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Revolution). 

2  The  first  being  that  of  the  Romans,  the  next  that  of  the  Saxons,  the  third  that  of 
St.  Augustine,  the  fourth  that  of  William  the  Conqueror,  the  fifth  that  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange. 

8  Prince  James  Edward  Stuart,  the  "  Old  Pretender,"  and  his  son  Prince  Charles 
Edward  Stuart,  the  "Young  Pretender."  *  Except,  of  course,  Louis  XIV". 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  2/9 

Parliament  could  not  be  legally  summoned  to  decide  the  question 
which  his  adversary  had  raised.  The  king  got  as  far  as  the  coast, 
but  was  discovered  by  some  fishermen  and  brought  back.  William 
reluctantly  received  him,  and  purposely  allowed  him  to  escape  a 
second  time.  He  now  reached  France,  and  found  generous  wel- 
come and  support  from  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  court  of  Versailles.1 
There  could  be  now  no  reasonable  doubt  that  James's  daughter 
Mary  would  receive  the  English  crown. 

544.  Character  of  the  Revolution  of  1688.  —  Never  was  a 
revolution  of  such  magnitude  and  meaning  accomplished  so 
peacefully.  Not  a  drop  of  blood  had  been  shed.  There  was 
hardly  any  excitement  or  uproar.  Even  the  bronze  statue  of  the 
runaway  king  was  permitted  to  stand  undisturbed  in  the  rear  of 
the  palace  of  Whitehall,  where  it  remains  to  this  day. 

The  great  change  had  taken  place  thus  quietly  because  men's 
minds  were  ripe  for  it.  England  had  entered  upon  another  period 
of  history,  in  which  old  institutions,  laws  and  customs  were  pass- 
ing away  and  all  was  becoming  new. 

Feudalism  had  vanished  under  Charles  II.,2  but  political  and 
religious  persecution  had  continued.  In  future,  however,  we  shall 
hear  no  more  of  the  revocation  of  city  charters  or  of  other  punish- 
ments inflicted  because  of  political  opinion,3  and  rarely  of  any 
punishment  for  religious  dissent.  Courts  of  justice  will  undergo 
reform,  and  will  no  longer  be  "little  better  than  caverns,  of 
murderers," 4  where  judges  like  Scruggs  and  Jeffreys  browbeat 
the  prisoners,  took  their  guilt  for  granted,  insulted  and  silenced 
witnesses  for  their  defence,  and  even  cast  juries  into  prison  under 
penalties  of  heavy  fines,  for  venturing  to  bring  in  verdicts  con- 
trary to  their  wishes.5 

1  For  the  king's  life  at  Versailles,  see  Doran's  Monarchs  retired  from  Business. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  534. 

8  See  Paragraph  No.  531  and  No.  539,  the  Cornish  case. 

*  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

6  See  Hallam,  and  also  introduction  to  Professor  Adams'  Manual  of  Historical 
Literature.  For  a  graphic  picture  of  the  times,  read,  in  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress, Christian's  trial  before  Lord  Hategood. 


28O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

The  day,  too,  had  gone  by  when  an  English  sovereign  could 
cast  his  subjects  into  fetid  dungeons  in  the  Tower  and  leave  them 
to  die  there  of  lingering  disease,  in  darkness,  solitude,  and  despair ; 
or,  like  James,  sit  in  the  court-room  at  Edinburgh,  and  watch 
with  curious  delight  the  agony  of  the  application  of  the  Scotch 
instruments  of  torture,  the  "  boot,"  and  the  thumbscrew. 

For  the  future,  thought  and  discussion  in  England  were  to  be  in 
great  measure  free,  as  in  time  they  would  be  wholly  so,  and  per- 
haps the  coward  king's  heaviest  retribution  in  his  secure  retreat 
beyond  the  sea  was  the  knowledge  that  all  his  efforts  to  prevent 
the  coming  of  this  liberty  had  absolutely  failed. 

545.  Summary.  —  The  reign    of  James  must  be  regarded  as 
mainly  taken  up  with  the  attempt  of  the  king  to  rule  indepen- 
dently of  Parliament  and  law,  and  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.     Monmouth's  rebellion,  though  without  real  justification, 
since  he  could  not  legitimately  claim  the  crown,  was  a  forerunner 
of  that  revolution  which  invited  William  of  Orange  to  support 
Parliament  in  placing  a  Protestant  sovereign  on  the  throne. 

• 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY  (House  of  Orange-Stuart).— 1689-1702. 

546.  The  Convention;    the  Declaration    of    Right. — After 
the  flight  of  James  II.,  a  Convention  which  was  practically  a  Par- 
liament 1  met,  and  declared  that  James  having  broken  "  the  orig- 
nal  contract  between  king  and  people,"  the  throne  was  therefore 
vacant.     During  the  interregnum,2  which  lasted  but  a  few  weeks, 
the  Convention  issued  a  formal  statement  of  principles  under  the 
name  of  the  Declaration  of  Right  (1689).     That  document  recited 
the  illegal  and  arbitrary  acts  of  the  late  king,  proclaimed  him  no 
longer  sovereign,  and  resolved  that  the  crown  should  be  tendered 
to  William  and  Mary.3    The  Declaration   having  been  read  to 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  517,  and  also  "  Great  Seal,"  Paragraph  No.  543. 

2  Interregnum  (inter,  between,  and  regnum,  a  king  or  reign).    The  Convention 
met  Jan.  22,  1689;  William  and  Mary  accepted  the  crown  Feb.  13. 

8  William  of  Orange  stood  next  in  order  of  succession  to  Mary  and  Anne  (pro- 
viding the  claim  of  the  newly  born  Prince  James,  the  Pretender,  was  set  aside). 
See  Table,  Paragraph  No.  581. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  28 1 

them  and  having  received  their  assent,  they  were  formally  invited 
to  accept  the  joint  sovereignty  of  the  realm,  with  the  understanding 
that  the  actual  administration  should  be  vested  in  William  alone. 

547.  Jacobites  and  Non-jurors. — At    the    accession  of   the 
new  sovereigns   the    extreme   Tories,1   who   believed   the   action 
of    the    Convention    unconstitutional,    continued    to    adhere    to 
James    II.  as  their  lawful  king.     Henceforth   this   class  became 
known  as  Jacobites,  from   Jacobus,  the  Latin  name  for  James. 
They  were  especially  numerous  and  determined  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  and  the  South  of  Ireland.     Though  they  made  no 
open  resistance   at   this  time,  yet   they  kept  up  a  secret  corre- 
spondence with  the  refugee  monarch  and  were  constantly  plotting 
for   his   restoration.     About  four  hundred  of  the  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  England,  including  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
four  more  of  the  famous  "Seven  Bishops," -~  with  some  members  of 
the  universities  and  also  some  Scotch  Presbyterians,  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary.     They  became  known 
on  this  account  as  the  Non-jurors,3  and  although  they  were  never 
harshly  treated,  they  were  compelled  to  resign  their  positions. 

548.  The  Mutiny  and  Toleration  Acts. — We  have  seen  that 
one  of  the  chief  means  of  despotism  on  which  James  II.  relied 
was  the  organization  of  a  powerful  standing  army  such   as  was 
unknown  in  England  until  Cromwell  was   compelled  to  rule   by 
military  force,  but  which   Charles    II.  had   perpetuated,    though 
in  such  greatly  diminished  numbers  that  the  body  was  no  longer 
formidable.     But  it  was  now  evident  that  owing  to  the  abolition 
of  the  feudal  levies4  such  an  army  must  be  maintained  at  the 
king's  command,  especially  as  war  was  impending  with  Louis  XIV., 
who  threatened  by  force  of  arms  and  with  the  help  of  the  Jacob- 
ites to  restore   James  to  the    English   throne.     To   prevent   the 

1  Tories :  see  Paragraph  No.  531. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  541. 

8  Non-juror  from  nan,  not,  and  jurare,  to  make  oath. 
4  See  Paragraphs  Nos.  534  and  200. 


282  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

sovereign  from  making  bad  use  of  such  a  power,  Parliament 
now  passed  a  law  called  the  Mutiny  Act,  which  practically  put 
the  army  under  the  control  of  the  nation,1  as  it  has  since 
remained.  Thus  all  danger  from  that  source  was  taken  away. 
James's  next  method  for  bringing  the  country  under  the 
control  of  Rome  had  been  to  issue  spurious  measures  of  tol- 
eration granting  freedom  to  all  religious  beliefs,  in  order  that 
he  might  thereby  place  Catholics  in  power.  As  an  offset  to  this 
measure,  Parliament  now  enacted  a  statute  of  toleration  which 
secured  freedom  of  worship  to  all  religious  believers  except 
"  Papists  and  such  as  deny  the  Trinity."  This  measure,  though 
one-sided  and  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  broader  and  juster 
ideas  of  toleration  which  have  since  prevailed,  was  nevertheless 
a  most  important  reform,  and  put  an  end  at  once  and  forever 
to  the  persecution  which  had  disgraced  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts, 
though  unfortunately  it  still  left  the  Catholics  and  the  Unitarians 
subject  to  the  heavy  hand  of  tyrannical  oppression.2 

549.  The  Bill  of  Rights  (1689)  and  Act  of  Settlement  (1701). 

—  Not  many  months  later,  Parliament  embodied  the  Declaration  of 
Right,  with  some  slight  changes,  in  the  Bill  of  Rights,  which  received 
the  signature  of  the  king  and  became  a  law.  It  constitutes  the 
third  and  last  great  step  which  England  has  taken  in  constitution- 
making —  the  first  being  the  Great  Charter  of  1215,  and  the 
second  the  Petition  of  Right  of  1628. 3  As  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act  was  contained,  in  germ  at  least,  in  Magna  Carta,4  these 
three  measures  sum  up  the  written  safeguards  of  the  nation,  and 
constitute,  as  Lord  Chatham,  said,  "  the  Bible  of  English  Liberty." 

1  The  Mutiny  Act  provides:    i.  That  the  standing  army  shall  be  at  the  king's 
command  —  subject  to  certain  rules  —  for  one  year  only;   2.  That  no  pay  shall  be 
issued  to  troops  except  by  special  act  of  Parliament ;  3.  That  no  act  of  mutiny  can 
be  punished  except  by  the  annual  re-enactment  of  the  Mutiny  Bill. 

2  In  1663  Charles  II.  granted  a  charter  to  Rhode  Island  which  secured  religious 
liberty  to  that  colony.     It  was  the  first  royal  charter  recognizing  the  principle  of 
toleration. 

8  See  Paragraph  No.  484. 
*  See  Paragraph  No.  313  (3). 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  283 

With  the  passage  of  the  Bill  of  Rights,1  the  doctrine  of  the 
Divine  Right  of  kings  to  govern  without  being  accountable  to 
their  subjects,  which  James  I.  and  his  descendants  had  tried  so 
hard  to  reduce  to  practice,  came  to  an  end  forever.  The  chief 
provisions  of  the  bill  were  :  i.  That  the  king  should  not  main- 
tain a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  except  by  consent  of  Par- 
liament; 2.  That  no  money  should  be  taken  from  the  people 
save  by  the  consent  of  Parliament ;  3.  That  every  subject  has 
the  right  to  petition  the  crown  for  the  redress  of  any  grievance  ; 
4.  That  the  election  of  members  of  Parliament  ought  to  be  free 
from  interference ;  5 .  That  Parliament  should  frequently  assem- 
ble and  enjoy  entire  freedom  of  debate ;  6.  That  the  king  be 
debarred  from  interfering  in  any  way  with  the  proper  execution 
of  the  laws;  7.  That  a  Roman  Catholic  or  a  person  marrying 
a  Roman  Catholic  be  henceforth  incapable  of  receiving  the  crown 
of  England.  Late  in  the  reign  (1701)  Parliament  reaffirmed  and 
still  further  extended  the  provisions  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  by  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  which  established  a  new  royal  line  of  Protestant 
sovereigns.2  This  law  practically  abolished  the  principle  of  heredi- 
tary succession  and  re-established  in  the  clearest  and  most  decided 
manner  the  right  of  the  nation  to  choose  its  own  rulers.  Accord- 
ing to  that  measure,  "  an  English  sovereign  is  now  as  much  the 
creature  of  an  act  of  Parliament  as  the  pettiest  tax-gatherer  in 
his  realm;"3  and  he  is  dependent  for  his  office  and  power  on 
the  will  of  the  people  as  really,  though  of  course  not  as  directly, 
as  the  President  of  the  United  States. 


1  For  full  text  of  the  bill,  see   Taswell-Langmead's   Constitutional    History  of 
England. 

2  The  Act  of  Settlement  provided  that  after  Princess  Anne  (in  default  of  issue 
by  William  or  Anne)  the  crown  should  descend  to  the  Electress  Sophia  of  Han- 
over, Germany,  and  her  Protestant  descendants.    The  Electress  Sophia  was  the 
granddaughter  of  James  I.    She  married  Ernest  Augustus,  Elector  (or  ruler)  of 
Hanover.    As  Hallam  says,  she  was  "  very  far  removed  from  any  hereditary  title," 
as  aside  from  James  II.'s  son,  whose  legitimacy  no  one  now  doubted,  there  were 
several  who  stood  nearer  in  right  of  succession. 

8  Green,  History  of  the  English  People. 


284  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

550.  Benefits  of  the  Revolution.  —  Foremost  in  the  list  of  bene- 
fits which  England  gained  by  the  Revolution  should  be  placed :  i . 
That  Toleration  Act  already  mentioned,  which  gave  to  a  very 
large  number  the  right  of  worshipping  God  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  conscience.  2.  Parliament  now  established  the  salutary 
rule  that  no  money  should  be  voted  to  the  king  except  for  specific 
purposes,  and  they  also  limited  the  royal  revenue  to  a  few  years' 
supply  instead  of  granting  it  for  life,  as  had  been  done  in  the  case 
of  Charles  II.  and  James.1  As  the  Mutiny  Act  made  the  army 
dependent  for  its  existence  on  the  annual  meeting  and  action  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  these  two  measures  practically  gave  the 
people  full  control  of  the  two  great  powers  —  the  purse  and  the 
sword, — which  they  have  ever  since  retained.  3.  Parliament  next 
enacted  that  judges  should  hold  office  not  as  heretofore,  at  his 
Majesty's  pleasure,  but  during  good  behavior,  thus  taking  away 
that  dangerous  authority  of  the  king  over  the  courts  of  justice, 
which  had  caused  so  much  oppression  and  cruelty.  4.  But,  as 
Macaulay  remarks,  of  all  the  reforms  produced  by  the  change  ot 
government,  perhaps  none  proved  more  extensively  useful  than  the 
establishment  of  the  liberty  of  the  press.  Up  to  this  time  no  book 
or  newspaper  could  be  published  in  England  without  a  license. 
During  the  Commonwealth  Milton  had  earnestly  labored  to  get 
this  severe  law  repealed,  declaring  that  "while  he  who  kills  a 
man  kills  a  reasonable  creature  ...  he  who  destroys  a  good 
book  [by  refusing  to  let  it  appear]  kills  reason  itself." 2  But 
under  James  II.  Chief  Justice  Scroggs  had  declared  it  a  crime  to 
publish  anything  whatever  concerning  the  government,  whether 
true  or  false,  without  a  license,  and  during  that  reign  there  were 
only  four  places  in  England  —  viz.,  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  York  —  where  any  book,  pamphlet,  or  newspaper  could  be 
legally  issued,  and  then  only  with  the  sanction  of  a  rigid 
inspector.  Under  William  and  Mary  this  restriction  was  removed, 
and  henceforth  men  were  free  not  only  to  think,  but  to  print  and 

1  Later,  limited  to  a  single  year's  supply. 

2  Milton's  Areopagitica,  or  speech  in  behatf  of  unlicensed  printing. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  285 

circulate  their  thought,  and  thus  to  bring  the  government  more 
directly  before  that  bar  of  public  opinion  which  judges  all  men 
and  all  institutions. 

551.  Arrival  of  James;  Act  of  Attainder;  Siege  of  Lon- 
donderry and  Battle  of  the  Boyne;  Glencoe. — But  though 
William  was  king  of  England,  and  had  been  accepted  as  king  of 
Scotland,  yet  the  Irish,  like  the  Scotch  Highlanders,  refused  to 
recognize  him  as  their  lawful  sovereign.  The  great  body  of  Irish 
population  was  then,  as  now,  Roman  Catholic  ;  but  they  had  been 
gradually  dispossessed  of  their  hold  on  the  land,  and  by  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  most  desirable  portion  of  the  island  was  owned 
by  a  few  hundred  thousand  Protestant  colonists.  On  the  other 
hand  James  II.  had,  during  his  reign,  put  the  civil  government  and 
the  military  power  in  the  hands  of  the  Catholics.  Tyrconnel l  now 
raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  in  the  interest  of  the  Catholics,  and 
invited  James  to  come  and  regain  his  throne.  The  Protestants  of 
the  north  stood  by  William,  and  thus  got  that  name  of  Orange- 
men which  they  have  ever  since  retained.  James  landed  in  Ireland 
in  the  spring  of  1689  with  a  small  French  force  lent  him  by  Louis 
XIV. 

He  established  his  headquarters  at  Dublin,  and  not  long  after 
issued  that  great  Act  of  Attainder  which  summoned  all  who  were 
in  rebellion  against  his  authority  to  appear  for  trial  on  a  given  day, 
or  be  declared  traitors,  hanged,  drawn  and  quartered,  and  their 
property  confiscated. 8  Next,  the  siege  of  the  Protestant  city  of 
Londonderry  was  begun.  For  more  than  three  months  it  held 
out  against  shot  and  shell,  famine  and  fever.  The  starving  inhab- 
itants, exceeding  30,000  in  number,  were  finally  reduced  to  the 
last  extremities.  Nothing  was  left  to  eat  but  a  few  miserable 
horses  and  some  salted  hides.  As  they  looked  into  each  other's 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  540. 

2  Attainder  (from  the  Old  French  attaindre,  to  accuse,  to  stain).    This  act  con- 
tained between  two  and  three  thousand  names.    It  embraced  all  classes,  from  half  the 
peerage  of  Ireland  to  tradesmen,  women,  and  children.    If  they  failed  to  appear, 
they  were  to  be  put  to  death  without  trial. 


286  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

hollow  eyes,  the  question  came,  Must  we  surrender?  Then  it 
was  that  an  aged  clergyman,  the  venerable  George  Walker,  one 
of  the  governors  of  the  city,  pleaded  with  them,  Bible  in  hand, 
to  remain  firm.  That  appeal  carried  the  day.  They  declared 
that  rather  than  open  the  gates  to  the  enemy,  they  would  perish  of 
hunger,  or,  as  some  voice  whispered,  that  they  would  fall  "  first  on 
the  horses  and  the  hides, — then  on  the  prisoners,  —  then — on  each 
other!"  But  at  this  moment,  when  all  hope  seemed  lost,  a  shout 
of  triumph  was  heard.  An  English  force  had  sailed  up  the  river, 
broken  through  all  obstructions,  and  the  valiant  city  was  saved. 
A  year  later  (1690)  occurred  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Boyne,1  at 
which  William  commanded  in  person  on  the  one  side,  while  James 
was  present  on  the  opposite  side.  William  had  a  somewhat  larger 
force  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  well-armed,  veteran  troops. 
The  contest  ended  with  the  utter  defeat  of  James.  He  stood  on  a 
hill  at  a  safe  distance,  and  when  he  saw  that  the  battle  was  going 
against  him,  turned  and  fled  for  France.  William,  on  the  other 
hand,  though  suffering  from  a  wound,  led  his  own  men.  The 
cowardly  behavior  of  James  excited  the  disgust  and  scorn  of  both 
the  French  and  Irish.  "  Change  kings  with  us,"  shouted  an  Irish 
officer  to  one  of  William's  men,  "change  kings  with  us,  and 
we'll  fight  you  over  again."  The  war  was  brought  to  an  end 
by  the  treaty  of  Limerick,  in  1691,  when  about  10,000  Irish  sol- 
diers who  had  fought  for  James,  and  who  no  longer  cared  to 
remain  in  their  own  country  after  their  defeat,  were  permitted  to  go 
to  France.  '•'  When  the  wild  cry  of  the  women,  who  stood  watch- 
ing their  departure,  was  hushed,  the  silence  of  death  settled  down 
upon  Ireland.  For  a  hundred  years  the  country  remained  at 
peace,  but  the  peace  was  that  of  despair."  *  In  violation  of  the 
treaty,  the  Catholics  were  hunted  like  wild  beasts,  and  terrible 
vengeance  was  now  taken  for  that  Act  of  Attainder  which  James 
had  foolishly  been  persuaded  to  issue.  Fighting  against  William 


1  Fought  in  the  East  of  Ireland,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  of  that  name 

2  Green's  English  People. 


/  DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  28.7 

and  Mary  had  also  been  going  on  in  Scotland,  but  the  Jacobites 
had  been  conquered,  and  a  proclamation  was  sent  out  command- 
ing all  the  Highland  clans  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  before 
Jan.  i,  1692.  A  chief  of  the  clan  of  the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe, 
through  no  fault  of  his  own,  failed  to  make  submission  within  the 
appointed  time.  Scotch  enemies  of  the  clan  gave  the  king  to  un- 
derstand that  the  chief  had  declined  taking  the  oath,  and  urged 
William  "  to  extirpate  that  set  of  thieves."  The  king  signed  an 
order  to  that  effect,  probably  without  reading  it,  or,  at  any  rate, 
without  understanding  what  was  intended.  The  Scotch  authorities 
managed  the  rest  in  their  own  way.  They  sent  a  body  of  soldiers 
to  Glencoe  who  were  hospitably  received  by  the  Macdonalds. 
After  stopping  with  them  a  number  of  days,  they  rose  before  light 
one  winter  morning,  and,  suddenly  attacking  their  friendly  hosts, 
murdered  all  the  men  who  did  not  escape,  and  drove  the  women 
and  children  out  into  the  snowdrifts  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger. 
They  finished  their  work  of  destruction  by  burning  the  cabins  and 
driving  away  the  cattle.  By  this  act,  Glencoe,  or  the  "  Glen  of 
Weeping,"  was  changed  into  the  very  Valley  of  the  Shadow  of 
Death.  The  blame  which  attaches  to  William  is  that  he  did 
nothing  toward  punishing  those  who  planned  and  carried  out  the 
horrible  massacre. 

The  English  commander,  Admiral  Russell,  like  many  of 
William's  pretended  friends  and  supporters,  had  been  engaged 
in  treasonable  correspondence  with  James,  so  that  in  case  the 
latter  succeeded  in  recovering  his  crown,  he  might  make  sure 
of  the  sunshine  of  royal  favor.  But  at  the  last  he  changed  his 
mind  and  fought  so  bravely  that  the  French  were  utterly  beaten. 
The  continental  wars  of  William  continued,  however,  for  the  next 
five  years,  until  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,1  1697,  Louis  XIV. 
bound  himself  to  recognize  William  as  king  of  England,  the 
Princess  Anne  as  his  successor,  to  withdraw  all  support  from 
James,  and  to  place  the  chief  fortresses  of  the  Low  Countries  in 


1  Ryswick :  a  village  of  Holland,  near  the  Hague. 


288  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  hands  of  the  Dutch  garrisons.  This  peace  marked  the  end 
of  the  conspiracy  between  Louis  and  the  Stuarts  to  turn  England 
into  a  Roman  Catholic  country  dependent  on  France.  When 
William  went  in  solemn  state  to  return  thanks  for  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war,  it  was  to  the  new  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's,  which 
Wren  had  nearly  completed,  and  which  was  then  first  used  for 
public  worship. 

552.  The  National  Debt;  the  Bank  of  England.  —  William 
had   now  gained,  at   least  temporarily,  the  object   that   he   had 
in  view  when  he  accepted  the  English  crown ;  which  was  to  draw 
that  nation  into  a  close  defensive  alliance  against  Louis  XIV.,1 
who,  as  we  have  seen,  was  bent  on  destroying  both  the  political 
and  the  religious  liberty  of  the  Dutch  as  a  Protestant   people. 
The  constant  wars  which  followed  William's  accession  had  com- 
pelled   the  king  to  borrow  large   sums   from   the   London   mer- 
chants.    Out  of  these  loans  sprang,  first  the  National  Debt,  which 
was  destined  to  grow,  eventually  by  leaps  and  bounds,  from  less 
than  a  million  of  pounds  up  to  so  many  hundred  millions,  that  all 
thought  of  ever  paying  it  is  now  given   up.     The  second  result 
was  the  organization  of  a  company  for  the  management  of  this 
colossal  debt ;   together  the  two  were  destined  to  become  more 
widely  known  than  any  of  William's  victories. 

The  building  erected  by  that  company  stands  on  Threadneedle 
Street,  in  the  very  heart  of  London.  In  one  of  its  courts  is  a 
statue  of  the  king  set  up  in  1 734,  bearing  this  inscription :  "  To 
the  memory  of  the  best  of  princes,  William  of  Orange,  founder  of 
the  Bank  of  England" — by  far  the  largest  and  most  important 
financial  institution  in  the  world. 

553.  William's  Death.  — William  had  a  brave  soul  in  a  feeble 
body.     All  his  life  he  was  an  invalid,  but  he  learned  to  conquer 
disease,  or   at   least  to  hold  it  in  check,  as   he   conquered   his 
enemies.     He  was  never   popular  in  England,  and  at  one  time 
was  only  kept  from  returning  to  his  native  country  through  the 

1  See  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization,  chap.  XIII. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  289 

earnest  protestation  of  his  chancellor,  Lord  Somers,  who  refused 
to  stamp  the  king's  resignation  with  the  Great  Seal.  Those 
who  pretended  to  sustain  him  were  in  many  cases  treacher- 
ous, and  only  wanted  a  good  opportunity  to  go  over  to  the  side 
of  James ;  others  were  eager  to  hear  of  his  death,  and  when  it 
occurred,  through  the  stumbling  of  his  horse  over  a  mole-hill, 
drank  to  "  the  little  gentleman  in  black  velvet,"  whose  under- 
ground work  caused  the  accident. 

554.  Summary.  — William's  reign  was  a  prolonged  battle  for 
Protestantism   and   for   the    maintenance   of   political   liberty   in 
both  England  and  Holland.     Invalid  as  he  was,  he  was  yet  a  man 
of  indomitable  resolution  as  well   as   indomitable   courage ;  and 
though  a  foreigner  by  birth,  and  caring  more  for  Holland  than 
for  any  country  in  the  world,  yet  through  his  Irish  and  conti- 
nental wars  with  James  and  Louis,  he  helped  more  than  any  man 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  Cromwell  alone   excepted,  to  make 
England  free. 

ANNE.  — 1702-1714. 

555.  Accession  and  Character  of  Anne.  —  As  William  left  no 
children,  the    Princess  Anne,  younger  sister  of  the    late    Queen 
Mary  now  came    to   the   throne.      She  was   a   negative   charac- 
ter,  with    kindly   impulses   and    little    intelligence.      "  When    in 
good   humor   she   was   meekly  stupid,  and  when   in   ill   humor, 
sulkily  stupid  ;  " l  but  if  there  was  any   person   duller  than   her 
majesty,  that  person  was  her  majesty's  husband,  Prince  George  of 
Denmark.     Charles  II.,  who  knew  him  well,  said,  "  I  have  tried 
Prince  George  sober,  and  I  have  tried  him  drunk,  and  drunk  or 
sober  there  is  nothing  in  him." 

Along  with  the  amiable  qualities  which  gained  for  the  new 
ruler  the  title  of  "  Good  Queen  Anne  "  her  majesty  inherited  the 
obstinacy,  the  prejudices,  and  the  superstitions  of  the  Stuarts. 
Though  a  most  zealous  Protestant  and  an  ardent  upholder  of 


Macaulay's  England;  and  compare  Stanhope's  Reign  of  Anne. 


2QO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

the  Church  of  England,  she  declared  her  faith  in  the  Divine 
Right  of  Kings,  which  had  cost  her  grandfather  Charles  his  head, 
and  she  was  the  last  English  sovereign  who  believed  that  the 
royal  hand  could  dispel  disease.  The  first  theory  she  never 
openly  proclaimed  in  any  offensive  way,  but  the  harmless  delusion 
that  she  could  relieve  the  sick  was  a  favorite  notion  with  her,  and 
we  find  in  the  London  Gazette  of  March  12,  1712,  an  official 
announcement,  stating  that  on  certain  days  the  queen  would 
"touch"  for  the  cure  of  "king's  evil,"  or  scrofula.  Among 
the  multitudes  who  went  to  test  her  power  was  a  poor  Lichfield 
bookseller.  He  carried  to  her  his  little  half-blind  sickly  boy, 
who  by  virtue  either  of  her  majesty's  beneficent  fingers,  or  from 
some  other  and  better  reason,  grew  up  to  be  known  as  the  famous 
author  and  lexicographer,  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.1 

556.  Whig  and  Tory ;  High  Church  and  Low.  —  Politically, 
the  government  of  the  country  was  divided  between  the  two 
great  parties  of  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories,2  since  succeeded  by 
the  Liberals  and  Conservatives.  Though  mutually  hostile,  each 
believing  that  its  rival's  success  meant  national  ruin,  yet  both 
were  sincerely  opposed  to  despotism  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
anarchy  on  the  other.  The  Whigs,  setting  Parliament  above  the 
throne,  were  pledged  to  maintain  the  Act  of  Settlement3  and 
the  Protestant  succession ;  while  the  Tories,  insisting  on  heredi- 
tary sovereignty,  were  anxious  to  set  aside  that  act  and  restore 
the  excluded  Stuarts. 

The  Church  of  England  was  likewise  divided  into  two  parties, 
known  as  High  Church  and  Low  Church.  The  first,  who  were  gen- 
erally Tories,  wished  to  exalt  the  power  of  the  bishops  and  were 
opposed  to  the  toleration  of  Dissenters ;  the  second,  who  were 
Whigs  as  a  rule,  believed  it  best  to  curtail  the  authority  of  the 

1  Johnson  told  Boswell,  his  biographer,  that  he  remembered  the  incident,  and 
that  "  he  had  a  confused,  but  somehow  a  sort  of  solemn  recollection  of  a  lady  in 
diamonds  and  a  long  black  hood."  —  BOSWELL'S  Johnson. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  531. 
8  See  Paragraph  No.  549. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  29! 

bishops,  and  to  secure  to  all  Trinitarian  Protestants  entire  liberty 
of  worship  and  all  civil  and  political  rights  and  privileges.  Thus 
to  the  bitterness  of  heated  political  controversy  there  was  added 
the  still  more  acrid  bitterness  of  theological  dispute.  Addison  tells 
an  amusing  story  of  a  boy  who  was  called  a  "  Popish  cur  "  by  a 
Whig,  because,  having  lost  his  way,  he  ventured  to  inquire  for 
Saint  Anne's  Lan£,  while  he  was  cuffed  for  irreverence  by  a  Tory 
when,  correcting  himself,  he  asked  bluntly  for  Anne's  Lane. 

The  queen,  although  she  owed  her  crown  mainly  to  the  Whigs, 
sympathized  with  the  Tories  and  the  High  Church,  and  did  all  in 
her  power  to  strengthen  both.  As  for  the  leaders  of  the  two  par- 
ties, they  seem  to  have  looked  out  first  for  themselves,  and  after- 
ward —  often  a  long  way  afterward  —  for  their  country.  During 
the  whole  reign  they  were  plotting  and  counterplotting,  mining  and 
undermining,  until  their  subtle  schemes  to  secure  office  and  destroy 
each  other  become  as  incomprehensible  and  as  fathomless  as  those 
of  the  fallen  angels  in  Milton's  vision  of  the  Bottomless  Pit. 

557.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. — Anne  had  no 
sooner  come  to  the  throne  than  war  broke  out  with  France.  It 
had  its  origin  in  the  previous  reign.  William  III.  cared  little  for 
England  compared  with  his  native  Holland,  whose  interests  always 
had  the  first  place  in  his  heart.  He  had  spent  his  life  battling  to 
preserve  the  independence  of  the  Dutch  Republic  against  the  dangers 
which  threatened  it,  and  especially  against  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
who  was  determined,  if  possible,  to  annex  the  Netherlands,  includ- 
ing Holland,  to  his  own  dominion.  During  the  latter  part  of  Wil- 
liam's reign  the  French  king  seemed  likely  to  be  able  to  accomplish 
his  purpose.  The  king  of  Spain,  who  had  no  children,  was  in  feeble 
health,  and  at  his  death  it  was  probable  that  Louis  XIV.'s  grand- 
son, Philip  of  Anjou,  would  receive  the  crown.  Louis  XIV.  was 
then  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Europe,  and  should  his  grandson 
become  king  of  Spain,  it  meant  that  the  French  monarch  would 
eventually  add  the  Spanish  dominions  to  his  own.  These  domin- 
ions comprised  not  only  Spain  proper,  but  a  large  part  of  the 


2Q2  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Netherlands  adjoining  Holland,1  portions  of  Italy,  and  immense 
provinces  in  both  North  and  South  America,  including  the  West 
Indies.  Such  an  empire,  if  it  came  under  the  control  of  Louis, 
would  make  him  irresistible  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  the 
little,  free  Protestant  states  of  Holland  could  not  hope  to  stand 
before  him.  William  endeavored  to  prevent  Louis  from  carrying 
out  his  designs  respecting  Spain,  by  two  secret  treaties,  and  also  by 
an  alliance  formed  between  Germany,  Holland,  and  England,  all 
of  whom  were  threatened  by  the  prospective  preponderating  power 
of  France.  Louis  had  signed  these  treaties,  but  had  no  intention 
of  abiding  by  them.  When,  not  long  after,  the  king  of  Spain 
died  and  left  the  crown  to  Philip  of  Anjou,  the  French  sovereign 
openly  declared  his  intention  of  placing  him  on  the  Spanish  throne, 
saying  significantly  as  his  grandson  left  Paris  for  Madrid,  "  The 
Pyrenees  no  longer  exist." 2  Furthermore,  Louis  now  put  French 
garrisons  in  the  border  towns  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  showing 
that  he  regarded  them  as  practically  his  own,  and  he  thus  had  a 
force  ready  at  any  moment  to  march  across  the  frontier  into  Hol- 
land. Finally,  on  the  death  of  James  II.,  which  occurred  shortly 
before  William's,  Louis  publicly  acknowledged  the  exiled  mon- 
arch's son,  James  Edward,  the  "Old  Pretender,"3  as  rightful  sover- 
eign of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  This,  and  this  only, 
effectually  roused  the  English  people ;  they  were  preparing  for 
hostilities  when  William's  sudden  death  occurred.  Immediately 
after  Anne's  succession,  war  was  declared,  which,  since  it  had 
grown  out  of  Louis's  designs  on  the  crown  of  Spain,  was  called 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

But  although  the  contest  was  undertaken  by  England  mainly 

1  The  whole  of  the  Netherlands  at  one  time  belonged  to  Spain,  but  the 
northern  part,  or  Holland,  had  succeeded  in  establishing  its  independence,  and 
was  protected  on  the  southern  frontier  by  a  line  of  fortified  towns. 

2  When  Philip  went  to  Spain,  Louis  XIV.,  by  letters  patent,  reserved  the  suc- 
cession to  the  Spanish  throne  to  France,  thus  virtually  uniting  the  two  countries,  so 
that  the   Pyrenees  Mountains  would  no  longer  have  any  political  meaning  as  a 
boundary. 

3  See  Paragraphs  Nos.  542  and  543. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE. 

to  prevent  the  French  king  from  carrying  out  his  threat  of  placing 
the  "  Pretender  "  on  the  English  throne,  —  thus  restoring  the 
country  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Stuarts, — yet  as  it  went  on  it  came 
to  have  two  other  important  objects.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
defence  of  Holland,  now  a  most  valuable  ally ;  the  second  was  the 
protection  of  the  Virginia  and  New  England  colonies  against  the 
power  of  France,  which  threatened  through  its  own  American  col- 
onies, and  through  the  extensive  Spanish  possessions  it  expected 
to  acquire,  to  get  control  of  the  whole  of  the  New  World.1  Thus 
England  had  three  objects  at  stake:  i.  The  maintenance  of 
Protestant  government  at  home ;  2.  The  maintenance  of  the 
Protestant  power  of  Holland ;  3.  The  possession  of  the  American 
continent.  For  this  reason  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
may  in  one  sense  be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  a  second  Hun- 
dred Years'  War  between  England  and  France,2  destined  to  decide 
which  was  to  build  up  the  great  empire  of  the  future  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere.3 

558.  Maryborough;  Blenheim  and  Other  Victories. — John 
Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  commanded  the  English  and 
Dutch  forces,  and  had  for  his  ally  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  who 
led  the  German  armies.  The  duke,  who  was  known  in  the 
enemy's  camps  by  the  flattering  name  of  "the  handsome  Eng- 
lishman," had  risen  from  obscurity.  He  owed  the  beginning  of 
his  success  to  his  good  looks  and  a  court  intrigue.  In  politics 
he  sympathized  chiefly  with  the  Tories,  but  his  interests  in  the 
war  led  him  to  support  the  Whigs.  He  was  avaricious,  unscru- 
pulous, perfidious.  James  II.  trusted  him,  and  he  deceived  him 
and  went  over  to  William ;  William  trusted  him,  and  he  deceived 
him  and  opened  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  dethroned 


1  At  this  time  England  had  only  the  colonies  of  Virginia  and  New  England, 
with  part  of  Newfoundland.    France  and  Spain  claimed  nearly  all  the  rest. 

2  During  the  next  eighty  years  fighting  was  going  on  between  England  and 
France,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  a  great  part  of  the  time. 

3  See  Seeley's  Expansion  of  England. 


294  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

James ;  Anne  trusted  him,  and  he  would  undoubtedly  have 
betrayed  her  if  the  "  Pretender "  had  only  possessed  means  to 
bid  high  enough,  or  in  any  way  show  that  his  cause  was 
likely  to  be  successful.  In  his  greed  for  money  he  hesitated  at 
nothing ;  he  took  bribes  from  army  contractors,  and  robbed  his 
soldiers  of  their  pay;  though  in  this  he  was  perhaps  no  worse 
than  many  other  generals  of  his,  and  even  of  later  times.1  As  a 
soldier,  Marlborough  had  no  equal.  Voltaire  says  of  him  with 
truth  that  "  he  never  besieged  a  fortress  which  he  did  not  take, 
nor  fight  a  battle  which  he  did  not  win."  This  man  at  once  so 
able  and  so  false,  to  whom  war  was  a  private  speculation  rather 
than  a  contest  for  right  or  principle,  now  opened  the  campaign 
by  capturing  those  fortresses  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  which 
Louis  XIV.  had  garrisoned  with  French  troops  to  menace  Hol- 
land ;  but  he  could  not  induce  the  enemy  to  risk  a  battle  in  the 
open  field.  At  length,  in  the  summer  of  1 704,  Marlborough,  by 
a  brilliant  movement,  changed  the  scene  of  the  war  from  the 
Netherlands  to  Bavaria.  There,  at  the  little  village  of  Blenheim, 
he,  with  Prince  Eugene,  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  which 
saved  Germany  from  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  England,  out 
of  gratitude  for  the  humiliation  of  her  powerful  enemy,  presented 
the  duke  with  the  ancient  royal  Park  of  Woodstock,  and  built 
for  him,  at  the  nation's  cost,  that  Palace  of  Blenheim  still  occupied 
by  descendants  of  the  duke's  family.2  Gibraltar  had  been  taken 
a  few  days  before  Blenheim  by  an  attack  by  sea,  so  that  England 
now  had,  as  she  continues  still  to  have,  the  command  of  the  great 
inland  sea  of  the  Mediterranean. 

In  the  Netherlands,  two  years  later,  Marlborough  won  the  battle 
of  Ramillies,3  by  which  the  whole  of  that  country  was  recovered 
from  the  French.  Two  years  from  that  time  Louis's  forces  marched 
back  into  the  Netherlands,  and  were  beaten  at  Oudenarde,  where 

1  See  Thackeray's  Henry  Esmond. 

2  Blenheim :   a  short  distance  from  Oxford.    The  palace  grounds  are  about 
twelve  miles  in  circumference. 

8  Raiaillies  (Ram  e-lez). 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  295 

they  were  trying  to  recover  the  territory  they  had  lost.  A  year 
afterward,  Maryborough  carried  the  war  into  Northern  France, 
fought  his  last  great  fight,  and  gained  his  last  great  victory  at 
Malplaquet,1  by  which  the  power  of  Louis  was  so  far  broken  that 
both  England  and  Europe  could  breathe  freely,  and  the  English 
colonies  in  America  felt  that  for  the  present  there  was  no  danger 
of  their  being  driven  into  the  Atlantic  by  either  the  French  or 
the  Spaniards. 

559.  The  Powers  behind  the  Throne;  Jennings  versus 
Masham.  —  While  the  war  was  going  on,  the  real  power,  so  far  as 
the  crown  was  concerned,  though  in  Anne's  name,  was  practically 
in  the  hands  of  Sarah  Jennings,  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  who  held 
the  office  of  Mistress  of  the  Robes.  She  and  the  queen  had  long 
been  inseparable,  and  it  was  her  influence  that  caused  Anne  to  de- 
sert her  father  and  espouse  the  cause  of  William  of  Orange.  The 
imperious  temper  of  the  duchess  carried  all  before  it,  and  in  her 
department  she  won  victories  which  might  be  compared  with  those 
the  duke,  her  husband,  gained  on  the  field  of  battle.  In  time, 
indeed,  her  sway  over  her  royal  companion  became  so  absolute 
that  she  decided  everything,  from  questions  of  state  to  the  cut  of 
a  gown  or  the  color  of  a  ribbon,  so  that  it  finally  grew  to  be  a 
common  saying  that  "  Queen  Anne  reigns,  but  Queen  Sarah  gov- 
erns." 2  While  she  continued  in  power,  she  used  her  influence  to 
urge  forward  the  war  with  France  undertaken  by  England  to 
check  the  designs  of  Louis  XIV.  on  Spain  and  Holland,  and  also 
to  punish  him  for  his  recognition  of  the  claim  of  the  Pretender  to 
the  English  crown.  Her  object  was  to  advance  her  husband,  who, 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  and  Dutch  forces  on  the 
continent,  had  won  fame  and  fortune  —  the  first  by  his  splen- 
did ability,  the  second  by  his  unscrupulous  greed. 

1  Malplaquet  (MaTplS'ka'). 

3  For  years  the  queen  and  the  duchess  carried  on  an  almost  daily  correspondence 
under  the  names  of  "  Mrs.  Morley  "  (the  queen)  and  "  Mrs.  Freeman  "  (the  duchess), 
the  latter  taking  that  name  because,  as  she  boasted,  it  suited  the  frank  and  bold 
character  of  her  letters. 


296  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

After  a  number  of  years,  the  queen  and  the  duchess  quarrelled, 
and  the  latter  was  superseded  by  a  Mrs.  Masham,  who  soon  got  as 
complete  control  of  Anne  as  the  former  favorite  had  possessed. 
Mrs.  Masham*  was  as  sly  and  supple  as  the  duchess  had  been 
dictatorial  and  violent.  She  was  cousin  to  Robert  Harley,  a 
prominent  Tory  politician.  Through  her  influence  Harley  now 
became  prime  minister  in  everything  but  name.  The  Whig  war 
policy  was  abandoned,  negotiations  for  peace  were  secretly  opened, 
and  Marlborough  was  ordered  home  in  disgrace  on  a  charge  of 
having  robbed  the  government.  Mr.  Masham,  much  to  his  wife's 
satisfaction,  was  created  a  peer  of  the  realm,  and  finally  a  treaty 
was  drafted  for  an  inglorious  peace.  Thus  it  was,  as  Hallam  re- 
marks, that  "  the  fortunes  of  Europe  were  changed  by  the  insolence 
of  one  waiting- woman  and  the  cunning  of  another."  l 

560.  Dr.  Sacheverell.  —  An  incident  occurred  at  this  time 
which  greatly  helped  the  Tories  in  their  schemes.  Now  that  the 
danger  was  over,  England  was  growing  weary  of  the  continuance 
of  a  war  which  involved  a  constant  drain  of  both  men  and  money. 
Dr.  Sacheverell,  a  violent  Tory  and  High  Churchman,  began 
.  preaching  a  series  of  sermons  in  London  condemning  the  war,  and 
the  Whigs  who  were  carrying  it  on.  He  also  endeavored  to  revive 
the  exploded  theory  of  the  Divine  Right  of  kings,  and  declared 
that  no  tyranny  on  the  part  of  a  sovereign  could  by  any  possi- 
bility justify  a  subject  in  resisting  the  royal  will,  with  much 
more  foolish  talk  of  the  same  kind,  all  of  which  he  published. 
The  Whig  leaders  unwisely  brought  the  preacher  to  trial  for 
alleged  treasonable  utterances.  He  was  suspended  from  his 
office  for  three  years,  and  his  book  *of  sermons  was  publicly 
burned  by  the  common  hangman. 

This  created  intense  popular  excitement ;  Sacheverell  was  re- 
garded as  a  political  martyr  by  all  who  wished  the  war  ended. 
A  reaction  against  the  government  set  in ;  the  Whigs  were  driven 
from  power,  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  had  to  leave  her  apart- 

1  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE. 

ments  in  the  palace  of  St.  James,  and  in  her  spite  broke  down 
marble  mantels  and  tore  off  the  locks  from  doors ;  Mrs.  Masham's 
friends,  the  Tories,  or  peace  party,  now  triumphed,  and  pre- 
pared to  put  an  end  to  the  fighting. 

561.  The  Peace  of  Utrecht.1  —  Not  long  after  this  change  a 
messenger  was  privately  despatched  to  Louis  XIV.  to  ask  if  he 
wished  for  peace.  "It  was,"  says  the  French  minister,  "like 
asking  a  dying  man  whether  he  would  wish  to  be  cured."2  Later, 
terms  were  agreed  upon  between  the  Tories  and  the  French, 
though  without  the  knowledge  of  the  English  people  or  their  allies ; 
but  finally,  in  1713,  in  the  quaint  Dutch  city  of  Utrecht,  the  allies, 
together  with  France  and  Spain,  signed  the  treaty  bearing  that 
name.  By  it  Louis  XIV.  bound  himself:  i.  To  acknowledge  the 
Protestant  succession  in  England;  2.  To  compel  the  Pretender 
to  quit  France ;  3.  To  renounce  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  France 
and  Spain ; 8  4.  To  cede  to  England  all  claims  to  Newfoundland, 
Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia,  and  that  vast  region  known  as  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  Possessions.  Next,  Spain  was  to  give  up  : 
i.  The  Spanish  Netherlands  to  Austria,  an  ally  of  Holland,  and 
grant  to  the  Dutch  a  line  of  forts  to  defend  their  frontier  against 
France ;  2.  England  was  to  have  the  exclusive  right  for  thirty- 
three  years  of  supplying  the  Spanish-American  colonists  with 
negro  slaves.4  This  trade  had  long  been  coveted  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  had  been  carried  on  to  some  extent  by  them  ever 
since  Sir  John  Hawkins  grew  so  rich  through  it  in  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's time,  that  he  set  up  a  coat  of  arms  emblazoned  with  a 
slave  in  fetters,  that  all  might  see  how  he  had  won  wealth  and 
distinction. 


1  Utrecht  (U'trSkt). 

2  Morris,  The  Age  of  Anne. 

8  But  Philip  was  to  retain  the  throne  of  Spain. 

4  This  right  had  formerly  belonged  to  France.  By  its  transfer  England  got  the 
privilege  of  furnishing  4800  "  sound,  merchantable  negroes "  annually ;  "  two- 
thirds  to  be  males  "  between  ten  and  forty  years  of  age. 


298  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

562.  Union  of   England   and   Scotland.  —  Since  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.,  England  and  Scotland  had  been  ruled  by  one 
sovereign,  but  each  country  retained  its  own  Parliament  and  its 
own  forms  of  worship.     In  1707  the  two  countries  were  united 
under  the  name  of  Great  Britain.     The  independent  Parliament 
of   Scotland  was  given    up,   and    the    Scotch  were   henceforth 
represented  in  the  English  Parliament  by  sixteen  peers  chosen 
by  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  summoning  of  every  Parliament  ; 
and  by  forty-five  (now  sixty)  members  returned  by  Scotland  to 
the  House  of  Commons. 

With  the  consummation  of  the  union  Great  Britain  adopted  a 
new  flag,  the  Union  Jack,  which  was  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  red  cross  of  St.  George  and  the  white  cross  of  St.  Andrew.1 

563.  Literature  of  the  Period;  the  First  Daily  Paper.  —  The 

reign  of  Anne  has  been  characterized  as  one  of  corruption  in 
high  places  and  of  brutality  in  low,  but  in  literature  it  takes  rank 
next  to  that  of  Elizabeth.  There  was  indeed  no  great  central 
luminary  like  Shakespeare,  but  a  constellation  of  lesser  ones  — 
such  as  Addison,  De  Foe,  and  Pope  —  that  shone  with  a  mild 
splendor  peculiarly  their  own :  the  lurid  brilliancy  of  the  half- 
mad  satirist  Dean  Swift,  who  moved  in  an  orbit  apart,  was  also 
beginning  to  command  attention ;  while  the  calm,  clear  light  of 
John  Locke  was  near  its  setting.  Aside  from  these  great  names 
in  letters,  it  was  an  age  generally  of  contented  dulness,  well  repre- 
sented in  the  good-natured  mediocrity  of  Queen  Anne  herself. 
During  her  reign  the  first  daily  newspaper  appeared  in  England 
—  the  Daily  C our  ant ;  it  was  a  dingy,  badly  printed  little  sheet 
not  much  bigger  than  a  man's  hand.  The  publisher  said  he 
made  it  so  small  "to  save  the  Publick  at  least  one-half  the 
Impertinences  of  Ordinary  News-Papers." 

1  St.  George :  the  patron  saint  of  England ;  St.  Andrew :  the  patron  saint  o) 
Scotland.  In  1801  when  Ireland  was  united  to  Great  Britain,  the  red  cross  ot  St. 
Patrick  was  added  to  the  flag.  Jack:  from  Jacques  (French  for  James),  James 
l.'s  usual  signature.  The  first  union  flag  was  his  work. 


DIVINE   RIGHT   OF   KINGS   AND   PEOPLE.  299 

Perhaps  it  was  well  this  journal  made  no  greater  pretensions ;  for, 
since  it  had  to  compete  with  swarms  of  abusive  political  pam- 
phlets, such  as  Swift  wrote  for  the  Tories  and  De  Foe  for  the  Whigs  ; 
since  it  had  also  to  compete  with  the  gossip  and  scandal  of  the 
coffee-houses  and  the  clubs,  the  proprietor  found  it  no  easy 
matter  to  either  fill  or  sell  it. 

A  few  years  later  a  new  journal  appeared  of  a  very  different 
kind,  called  the  Spectator,  which  Addison,  its  chief  contributor, 
soon  made  famous.  Each  number  consisted  of  an  essay  hitting  off 
the  follies  and  foibles  of  the  age,  and  was  regularly  served  at  the 
breakfast- tables  of  people  of  fashion  along  with  their  tea  and  toast. 
One  of  it  greatest  merits  was  its  happy  way  of  showing  that  wit 
and  virtue  are  after  all  better  friends  than  wit  and  vice.  These  two 
dissimilar  sheets,  neither  of  which  dared  to  publish  a  single  line  of 
Parliamentary  debate,  mark  the  humble  beginning  of  that  vast 
organized  power,  represented  by  the  daily  press  of  London,  which 
discusses  everything  of  note  or  interest  throughout  the  world. 

564.  Death  of  the  Queen. — With  Anne's  death  in  1714  the 
Stuart  power  came  to  an  end.     All  of  her  children  had  died  in 
infancy,  except  one  unfortunate  sickly  son  who  lived  just  long 
enough  to  awaken  hopes  which  were  buried  with  him.     Accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  Settlement l  the  crown  now  passed 
to  George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  a  Protestant  descendant  of  James 
I.  of  England ;  though  James  Edward,  son  of  James  II.,  believed 
to  the  last  that  his  half-sister,  the  queen,  would   name   him   her 
successor ; 2  instead  of  that  it  was  she  who  first  dubbed  him  the 
"  Pretender." 

565.  Summary.  —  The  whole  reign  of  Anne  was  taken  up  with 
the  strife  of  political  parties  at  home,  and  the  War  of  the  Suc- 
cession abroad.     The  Whigs  were  always  intriguing  through  the 
Duchess  of  Marlborough  and  other  leaders  to  keep  up  the  war 
and  to  keep  out  the  "  Pretender  " ;  the  Tories,  on  the  other  hand, 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  549. 

2  Anne  and  the  "  Pretender"  were  children  of  James  II.  by  different  mothers. 


3OO  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

were  just  as  busy  through  Mrs.  Masham  and  her  coadjutors  in  en- 
deavoring to  establish  peace,  and  with  it  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings, 
while  the  extremists  among  them  hoped  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Stuarts  in  the  person  of  James  Edward.  The 
result  of  the  War  of  the  Succession  was  the  defeat  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  the  confirmation  of  that  Act  of  Settlement  which  secured  the 
English  crown  to  a  Protestant  prince. 


GENERAL    VIEW     OF    THE     STUART     PERIOD. 
1603-1649  (Commonwealth,  1649-1660);  1660-1714. 

I.  GOVERNMENT.  —  II.  RELIGION.  —  III.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS.  —  IV 
LITERATURE,  LEARNING,  AND  ART.  —  V.  GENERAL  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE.  —  VI.  MODE  OF  LIFE,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

566.   Divine  Right  of  Kings ;   the  Civil  War ;    the  Revolution 

of  1688.  —  The  period  began  with  the  attempt  of  James  I.  to  carry  out 
his  theory  that  the  king  derives  his  right  to  rule  directly  from  God,  and 
in  no  wise  from  the  people.  Charles  I.  adopted  this  disastrous  theory, 
and  was  supported  in  it  by  Mainwaring  and  other  clergymen,  who  de- 
clared that  the  king  represents  God  on  earth,  and  that  the  subject  who 
resists  his  will,  or  refuses  a  tax  or  loan  to  him,  does  so  at  the  everlast- 
ing peril  of  his  soul.  Charles's  arbitrary  methods  of  government,  and 
levies  of  illegal  taxes,  with  the  imprisonment  of  those  who  refused 
to  pay  them,  led  to  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament  and  the  enact- 
ment of  the  statute  of  the  Petition  of  Right,  or  second  great  charter  of 
English  liberties. 

The  same  Parliament  abolished  the  despotic  court  of  Star-Chamber 
and  High  Commission,  which  had  been  used  by  Strafford  and  Laud 
to  carry  out  their  tyrannical  scheme  called  "Thorough.11 

Charles's  renewed  acts  of  oppression  and  open  violation  of  the  laws, 
with  his  levies  of  Ship-money,  led  to  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  an 
appeal  to  the  nation  to  support  Parliament  in  its  struggle  with  the  king. 
The  attempt  of  the  king  to  arrest  five  members  who  had  taken  a  promi- 
nent part  in  drawing  up  the  Remonstrance,  brought  on  the  Civil  War, 


DIVINE    RIGHT   OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  3OI 

and  the  establishment  of  a  republic  which  declared,  in  opposition  to  the 
doctrine  of  the.  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  that  "the  people  are,  under 
God,  the  origin  of  all  just  power."  Eventually,  Cromwell  became  Pro- 
tector of  the  nation,  and  ruled  by  means  of  a  strong  military  power. 

On  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  Charles  II.  endeavored  to  rule 
without  Parliament  by  selling  his  influence  to  Louis  XIV.,  by  the  secret 
treaty  of  Dover.  During  his  reign,  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  passed, 
and  feudalism  practically  abolished. 

James  II.  endeavored  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  His 
treatment  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  imprisonment  of  the  Seven 
Bishops,  with  the  birth  of  a  son  who  would  be  educated  as  a  Roman 
Catholic,  caused  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and  placed  William  and  Mary 
on  the  throne. 

Parliament  now  passed  the  Bill  of  Rights,  the  third  great  charter  for 
the  protection  of  the  English  people,  and  later  confirmed  it  by  the  Act 
of  Settlement,  which  secured  the  crown  to  a  line  of  Protestant  sover- 
eigns. The  Mutiny  Bill,  passed  at  the  beginning  of  William  III.'s 
reign,  made  the  army  dependent  on  Parliament.  These  measures  prac- 
tically put  the  government  in  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
where  it  has  ever  since  remained.  William's  war  caused  the  beginning 
of  the  national  debt  and  the  establishment  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

In  the  reign  of  Anne,  1707,  Scotland  and  England  were  united  under 
the  name  of  Great  Britain.  During  her  sovereignty  the  Whig  and 
Tory  parties,  which  came  into  existence  in  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  be- 
came especially  prominent,  and  they  have  since  (though  lately  under 
the  name  of  Liberals  and  Conservatives)  continued  to  divide  the  Par- 
liamentary government  between  them, —  the  Whigs  seeking  to  extend 
the  power  of  the  people ;  the  Tories,  that  of  the  crown  and  the  church. 

RELIGION. 

567.    Religious   Parties  and   Religious   Legislation.  —  At  the 

beginning  of  this  period  we  find  four  religious  parties  in  England :  I. 
The  Roman  Catholics ;  2.  The  Episcopalians,  or  supporters  of  the 
National  Church  of  England ;  3.  The  Puritans,  who  were  seeking  to 
purify  the  church  from  certain  Romish  customs  and  modes  of  worship ; 
4.  The  Independents,  who  were  endeavoring  to  establish  independent 
congregational  societies.  In  Scotland  the  Puritans  established  their 
religion  in  a  church  governed  by  elders,  or  presbyters,  instead  of 
bishops,  and  on  that  account  got  the  name  of  Presbyterians. 


302  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

James  I.  persecuted  all  who  dissented  from  the  Church  of  England ; 
and  after  the  Gunpowder  Plot  the  Roman  Catholics  were  practically 
deprived  of  the  protection  of  the  law,  and  subject  to  terrible  oppression. 
In  the  same  reign  two  Unitarians  were  burned  at  Smithfield  for  denying 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

During  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  and  the  Commonwealth,  Pres- 
byterianism  was  established  as  the  national  worship  of  England  and 
Scotland  by  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  At  the  Restoration 
severe  laws  against  the  Scotch  Covenanters  and  other  dissenters  were, 
enforced,  and  two  thousand  clergymen  were  driven  from  their  parishes 
to  starve ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  pretended  Popish  Plot  caused  the 
exclusion  of  Roman  Catholics  from  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and 
all  persons  holding  office  were  obliged  to  partake  of  the  sacrament 
according  to  the  Church  of  England.  James  II. 's  futile  attempt  to 
restore  Catholicism  ended  in  the  Revolution  and  the  passage  of  the 
Toleration  Act,  granting  liberty  of  worship  to  all  Protestant  Trini- 
tarians. 

MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

568.  Armor  and  Arms.  —  Armor  still  continued  to  be  worn  in 
some  degree  during  this  period,  but  it  consisted  chiefly  of  the  hel- 
met with  breast  and  back-plates.     Firearms  of  various  kinds  were  in 
general  use ;   also  hand-grenades,  or  small  bombs,  and  the  bayonet. 
The  chief  wars  of  the  period  were  the  Civil  War,  the  wars  with  the 
Dutch,  William's  war  with  France,  and  that  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

LEARNING,    LITERATURE,   AND  ART. 

569.  Great  Writers.  —  The  most  eminent  prose  writers  of  this 
period  were  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Lord  Bacon,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  John 
Bunyan,  Jeremy  Taylor,  John  Locke,  Hobbes,  Dean  Swift,  De  Foe,  and 
Addison ;  the  chief  poets,  Shakespeare  and  Jonson  (mentioned  under 
the  preceding  period),  Milton,  Dryden,  Pope,  Butler,  and  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  with  a  class  of  writers  known  as  the  "  Comic  Dramatists  of 
the  Restoration,"  whose  works,  though  not  lacking  in  genius,  exhibit 
many  of  the  worst  features  of  the  licentious  age  in  which  they  were  pro- 
duced.    Three  other  great  writers  were  born  in  the  latter  part  of  this 
period,  —  Fielding,  the  novelist.  Hume,  the  historian,  and  Butler,1  the 

1  Bishop  Butler,  author  of  The  Analogy  of  Religion  (1736),  a  work  which 
gained  for  him  the  title  of  "  the  Bacon  of  Theology." 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  303 

ablest  thinker  of  his  time  in  the  English  Church,  — but  their  produc- 
tions belong  to  the  time  of  the  Georges. 

570.  Progress  in  Science  and  Invention.  —  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
revolutionized  natural  philosophy  by  his  discovery  and  demonstration 
of  the  law  of  gravitation,  and  Dr.  William    Harvey  accomplished   as 
great  a  change  in  physiological  science  by  his  discovery  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood.     The  most  remarkable  invention  of  the  age  was  a 
rude  steam  engine,  patented  in  1698  by  Captain  Savery,  and  so  far  im- 
proved by  Thomas  Newcomen  in  1712  that  it  was  used  for  pumping 
water  in  coal  mines  for  many  years.     Both  were  destined  to  be  super- 
seded by  James  Watt's  engine,  which  belongs  to  a  later  period  (1765). 

571.  Architecture.  —  The  Gothic  style  of  the  preceding  periods 
was  followed  by  the  Italian,  or  classical,  represented  in  the  works  of 
Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren.     It  was  a  revival,  in  modified 
form,  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  architecture.     St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, the  grandest  church  ever  built  in  England  for  Protestant  worship, 
is  the  best  example  of  this  style.     Many  beautiful  manor-houses  were 
built  in  the  early  part  of  this  period,  which,  like  the  churches  of  the 
time,  are  often  ornamented  with  the  exquisite  wood-carving  of  Grinling 
Gibbons.     There  were  no  great  artists  in  England  in  this  age,  though 
Charles  I.  employed  Rubens  and  other  foreign  painters  to  decorate  the 
palace  of  Whitehall  and  Windsor  Castle. 

572.  Education.  —  The  higher  education  of  the  period  was  con- 
fined almost  wholly  to  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek.     The  discipline 
of  all  schools  was  extremely  harsh.     Nearly  every  lesson  was  empha- 
sized by  a  liberal  application  of  the  rod,  and  the  highest  recommenda- 
tion a  teacher  could  have  was  that  he  was  known  as  "a  learned  and 
lashing  master." 

GENERAL  INDUSTRY   AND   COMMERCE. 

573.  Manufactures.  —  Woollen  goods  continued  to  be  a  chief  arti- 
cle of  manufacture.     Silks  were  also  produced  by  thousands  of  Hugue- 
not weavers,  who  fled  from  France  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  Louis 
XIV.     Coal  was  now  extensively  mined,  and  iron  and  pottery  works 
were  giving  industrial  importance  to  Birmingham  and  other  growing 
towns  in  the  midlands. 

574.  Commerce.  —  During  a  great  part  of  this  period  intense  com- 
mercial rivalry  existed  between  England  and  Holland,  each  of  which 


304  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

was  anxious  to  get  the  monopoly  of  the  colonial  import  and  export 
trade.  Parliament  passed  stringent  navigation  laws,  under  Cromwell 
and  later,  to  prevent  the  Dutch  from  competing  with  English  merchants 
and  shippers.  The  East  India  and  South  Sea  companies  were  means 
of  greatly  extending  English  commercial  enterprise,  as  was  also  the 
tobacco  culture  of  Virginia. 

575.  Roads  and  Travel.  —  Good  roads  were   still   unknown   in 
England.     Stage  coaches  carried  a  few  passengers  at  exorbitant  rates, 
requiring  an  entire  day  to  go  a  distance  which  an  express  train  now 
travels  in  less  than  an  hour.     Goods  were  carried  on  pack-horses  or  in 
cumbrous  wagons,  and  so  great  was  the  expense  of  transportation  that 
farmers  often  let  their  produce  rot  on  the  ground  rather  than  attempt  to 
get  it  to  the  nearest  market  town. 

In  London  a  few  coaches  were  in  use,  but  covered  chairs,  carried  on 
poles  by  two  men  and  called  "  sedan  chairs,"  were  the  favorite  vehicles. 
Although  London  had  been  in  great  part  rebuilt  since  the  fire  of  1666, 
the  streets  were  still  very  narrow,  without  sidewalks,  heaped  with  filth, 
and  miserably  lighted. 

576.  Agriculture;  Pauperism.  —  Agriculture  generally  made  no 
marked  improvement,  but  gardening  did,  and   many  vegetables  and 
fruits  were  introduced  which  had  not  before  been  cultivated. 

Pauperism  remained  a  problem  which  the  government  had  not  yet 
found  a  practical  method  of  dealing  with.  There  was  little  freedom  of 
movement ;  the  poor  man's  parish  was  virtually  his  prison,  and  if  he 
left  it  to  seek  work  elsewhere,  and  required  help  on  the  way,  he  was 
certain  to  be  sent  back  to  the  place  where  he  was  legally  settled. 

MODES    OF    LIFE,    MANNERS,    AND   CUSTOMS. 

577.  Dress.  —  In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  and  his  successors  the 
dress  of  the  wealthy  and  fashionable  classes  was  most  elaborate  and 
costly.     Gentlemen  wore  their  hair  long,  in  ringlets,  with  an  abundance 
of  gold  lace  and  ruffles,  and  carried  long,  slender  swords,  known  as 
rapiers.     Later,  wigs  came  into  use,  and  no  man  of  any  social  standing 
thought  of  appearing  without  one. 

In  Queen  Anne's  reign  ladies  painted  their  faces  and  ornamented 
them  with  minute  black  patches,  which  served  not  only  for  "  beauty 
spots,"  but  also  showed,  by  their  arrangement,  with  which  political 
party  they  sympathized. 


DIVINE    RIGHT    OF    KINGS    AND    PEOPLE.  30$ 

578.  Coffee-Houses.  —  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ale  and  beer  were  the  common  drink  of  all  classes ;  but  about  that 
time  coffee  was   introduced,  and  coffee-houses  became  a  fashionable 
resort  for  gentlemen  and  for  all  who  wished  to  learn  the  news  of  the 
day.     Tea  had  not  yet  come  into  use;  but,  in  1660,  Pepys  says  in  his 
diary :  "  Sept.  25.    I  did  send  for  a  cup  of  tee  (a  China  drink)  of  which 
I  never  had  drank  before." 

579.  The   Streets  of  London.  —  No  efficient  police   existed   in 
London,  and  at  night  the  streets  were  infested  with  brutal  ruffians ;  and 
as  late  as  Queen  Anne's  time,  by  bands  of  "fine  gentlemen"  not  less 
brutal,  who  amused   themselves  by  overturning  sedan  chairs,  rolling 
women  down  hill  in  barrels,  and  compelling  men  to  dance  jigs,  under  the 
stimulus  of  repeated  pricks  from  a  circle  of  sword  points,  until  they  fell 
fainting  from  exhaustion.     Duels  were  frequent,  on  the  slightest  provo- 
cation.    Highwaymen  aboun Jed  both  in  the  city  and  without,  and  it 
was  dangerous  to  travel  any  distance,  even  by  day,  without  an  armed 
guard. 

580.  Brutal  Laws.  —  Hanging  was  the  common  punishment  for 
theft  and  many  other  crimes.     The  public  whipping  of  both  men  and 
women  through  the  streets  was  frequent.     Debtors  were  shut  up  in 
prison,  and  left  to  beg  from  the  passers-by  or  starve ;   and  ordinary 
offenders  were  fastened  in  a  wooden  frame  called  the  "  pillory  "  and  ex- 
posed on  a  stage  where  they  were  pelted  by  the  mob,  and  their  bones 
not  infrequently  broken  with  clubs  and  brickbats.     The  pillory  con- 
tinued in  use  until  the  accession  of  Victoria  in  1837. 


3O6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


X. 


"  The  history  of  England  is  emphatically  the  history  of  progress.  It  is  the 
history  of  a  constant  movement  of  the  public  mind,  of  a  constant  change  in 
the  institutions  of  a  great  society."  —  MACAULAY. 


INDIA    GAINED;     AMERICA    LOST.  —  PARLIAMENTARY 
REFORM.— GOVERNMENT   BY  THE   PEOPLE. 

THE    HOUSE   OF   HANOVER,   (1714,)    TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME. 

George  I.,  1714-1727.  George  IV.,  1820-1830. 
George  II.,  1727-1760.  William  IV.,  1830-1837. 
George  III.,  1760-1820.  Victoria,  1837 

581.  Accession  of  George  I.  —  As  Queen  Anne  died  without 
leaving  an  heir  to  the  throne,  George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  now, 
in  accordance  with  the  Act  of  Settlement,1  came  into  posses- 
sion of  the  English  crown.  The  new  king,  however,  was  in  no 
haste  to  leave  the  quiet  little  German  court  where  he  had  passed 
his  fifty-fourth  birthday,  and  where  he  would  have  gladly  spent 
the  rest  of  his  uneventful  life.  As  he  owed  his  new  position  to 
Whig  legislation,  he  naturally  favored  that  party  and  turned  his 
back  on  the  Tories,  who,  deprived  of  the  sunshine  of  royal  favor, 
were  as  unhappy  as  their  rivals  were  jubilant.  In  fact,  the  reac- 
tion was  so  strong  that  the  three  Tory  leaders  were  now  impeached 
for  treason,  on  the  ground  that  they  had  intrigued  to  restore 
the  fallen  house  of  Stuart,  and  endeavored  to  make  the  Pre- 
tender king.  Two  of  the  three  fled  the  country,  and  the  third, 

1  Act  of  Settlement :  see  Paragraph  No.  549. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE. 


307 


after  a  term  of  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  was  discharged  without 
further  punishment.1 

582.  Character  of  the  New  King.  — The  new  sovereign  was  a 
selfish,  coarse  old  man,  who  in  private  life  would,  as  Lady  Mon- 
tagu said,  have  passed  for  an  honest  blockhead.  He  neither 
knew  anything  about  England,  nor  did  he  desire  to  know  anything 
of  it.  He  could  not  speak  a  word  of  the  language  of  the 
country  he  was  called  to  govern,  and  he  made  no  attempt  to 
learn  it ;  even  the  coronation  service  had  to  be  explained  to  him 
as  best  it  could,  in  such  broken  Latin  as  the  ministers  could  mus- 
ter. Laboring  under  these  disadvantages,  his  majesty  wisely  deter- 
mined not  to  try  to  take  any  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 
He  was  a  hearty  eater  and  drinker,  so  that  his  table  exercises  took 
up  a  considerable  portion  of  his  time.  Much  of  the  rest  he  was 

1  The  House  of  Hanover,  also  called  Brunswick  and  Guelf. 
James  (Stuart)  I.  of  England. 


Charles  I. 


Charles II.  James  II. 


Mary,  m.        Anne. 
William  III. 

of  Orange, 
afterward  Wil- 
liam III.  of 
England. 


Mary,  m.  Wil- 
liam II.  of 
|  Orange. 

James  (the     .......  I     TTT 

Old  Pretend-  William  III. 
er),  b.  168! 
d.  1765. 


Elizabeth,  m.  Frederick, 
Elector-Palatine,*  and 
later  king  of  Bohemia. 

Sophia,  m.  the  Elector 
of  Hanover.t 

George,  Elector  of 
Hanover,  became 


1765.        became  Wil-    George  I.  of  England,  1714. 

ham  III.  of  I 

Charles  (the  England,  1689.  George  II. 

Young  Pre- 
tender) ,  b.  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
1720,0. 1788.  ^died  kgfore  commg  to  the 

throne). 
George  III. 


George  IV.  William  Edward, 
IV.         Duke  of 
Kent,  d.  1820. 

Victoria. 

*  Elector-Palatine:  a  prince  ruling  over  the  territory  called  the  Palatinate  in  Western  Ger- 
many, on  the  Rhine. 

f  Elector  of  Hanover:  a  prince  ruling  over  the  province  of  Hanover,  a  part  of  the  German 
Empire,  lying  on  the  North  Sea.  The  Elector  received  his  title  from  the  fact  that  he  was  one 
of  seven  princes  who  had  the  right  of  electing  the  German  emperor. 


308  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

contented  to  spend  quietly  smoking  his  pipe,  or  playing  cards  and 
laughing  at  the  caricature  pictures  of  the  English  which  the  Dutch 
ladies  of  his  court  used  to  cut  out  of  paper  for  his  amusement. 
As  for  politics,  he  let  his  Whig  friends,  with  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
at  the  head,  manage  the  country  in  their  own  way.  Fortunately, 
the  great  body  of  the  English  people  were  abundantly  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  Voltaire  said  of  them  that  they  resembled  a 
barrel  of  their  own  beer,  froth  at  the  top,  dregs  at  the  bottom,  but 
thoroughly  sound  and  wholesome  in  the  middle.  It  was  this  mid- 
dle class,  with  their  solid,  practical  good  sense,  that  kept  the 
nation  right.  They  were  by  no  means  enthusiastic  worshippers  of 
the  German  king  who  had  come  to  reign  over  them,  but  they  saw 
one  thing  clearly :  he  might  be  as  heavy,  dull,  and  wooden  as  the 
figure-head  of  a  ship,  yet,  like  that  figure-head,  he  stood  for  some- 
thing greater  and  better  than  himself,  —  for  he  represented  Prot- 
estantism, with  civil  and  religious  liberty,  —  and  so  the  people 
gave  him  their  allegiance. 

583.  Cabinet  Government. — The  present  method  of  govern- 
ment dates  from  this  reign.  From  the  earliest  period  of  English 
history  the  sovereign  was  accustomed  to  have  a  permanent  coun- 
cil composed  of  some  of  the  chief  men  of  the  realm,  whom 
he  consulted  on  all  matters  of  importance.  Charles  II.,  either 
because  he  found  this  body  inconveniently  large  for  the  rapid 
transaction  of  business,  or  else  because  he  believed  it  inexpe- 
dient to  discuss  his  plans  with  so  many,  selected  a  small  confiden- 
tial committee  from  it.  This  committee  met  to  consult  with  the 
king  in  his  cabinet,  or  private  room,  and  so  came  to  be  called 
"  the  cabinet  council,"  or  briefly  "  the  cabinet,"  a  name  which 
it  has  ever  since  retained. 

During  Charles  II.'s  reign  and  that  of  his  immediate  successors 
the  king  continued  to  choose  this  special  council  from  those  whom 
he  believed  to  be  friendly  to  his  measures,  often  without  much 
regard  to  party  lines,  and  he  was  always  present  at  their  meetings. 
With  the  accession  of  George  I.,  however,  a  great  change  took 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  309 

place.  His  want  of  acquaintance  with  prominent  men  made  it 
difficult  for  him  to  select  a  cabinet  himself,  and  his  ignorance  of 
English  rendered  his  presence  at  its  meetings  wholly  useless.  For 
these  reasons  the  new  king  adopted  the  expedient  of  appointing  a 
chief  adviser,  or  prime  minister,  who  chose  his  own  cabinet  from 
men  of  the  political  party  to  which  he  belonged.  Thus  Sir  Rob- 
ert Walpole,  the  first  prime  minister,  began  that  system  (though 
not  until  the  reign  was  far  advanced)  by  which  the  executive 
affairs  of  the  government  are  managed  to-day.  The  cabinet,  or 
"  the  government,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  now  generally  consists 
of  twelve  or  fifteen  persons  chosen  by  the  prime  minister,  or  pre- 
mier,1 from  the  leading  members  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament, 
but  whose  political  views  agree  in  the  main  with  the  majority  of 
the  House  of  Commons.2  This  system,  though  not  fully  devel- 

1  Now  generally  called  the  premier  (from  the  French  premier,  first  or  chief). 

2  The  existence  of  the  Cabinet  depends  on  custom,  not   law.    Its  members  are 
never  officially  made  known  to  the  public,  nor  its  proceedings  recorded.    Its  meet- 
ings, which  take  place  at  irregular  intervals,  according  to  pressure  of  business,  are 
entirely  secret,  and  the  sovereign  is  never  present.    As  the  Cabinet  agrees  in  its 
composition  with  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  it  follows  that  if  the 
Commons  are  Conservative,  the  Cabinet  will  be  so  likewise;  and  if  Liberal,  the 
reverse.    Theoretically,  the  sovereign  chooses  the  Cabinet ;  but  practically  the  se- 
lection is  now  always  made  by  the  prime  minister.    If  at  any  time  the  Cabinet 
finds  that  its  political  policy  no  longer  agrees  with  that  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
it  usually  resigns,  and  the  sovereign  chooses  a  new  prime  minister  from  the  oppo- 
site party,  who  forms  a  new  Cabinet  in  harmony  with  himself  and  the  Commons. 
If,  however,  the  prime  minister  has  good  reason  for  believing  that  a  different 
House  of  Commons  would  support  him,  the  sovereign  may,  by  his  advice,  dissolve 
Parliament.    A  new  election  then  takes  place,  and  according  to  the  political  char- 
acter of  the  members  returned,  the  Cabinet  remains  in,  or  goes  out  of,  power. 
The  Cabinet  now  invariably  includes  the  following  officers:  — 

1.  The    First    Lord    of    the    Treasury      7.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 

(Usually  the  Prime  Minister).  Affairs. 

2.  The  Lord  Chancellor.  8.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 

3.  The  Lord  President  of  the  Council.  nies. 

4.  The  Lord  Privy  Seal.  9.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

5.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  10.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

6.  The  Secretary  of  State  for    Home  n.  The  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

Affairs. 

In  addition,  a  certain  number  of  other  officers  of  the  government  are  frequently 
included,  making  the  whole  number  about  twelve  or  fifteen. 


?IO  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

oped  until  the  reign  of  George  III.,  had  become  so  well  estab- 
lished when  George  II.  came  to  the  throne,  that  he  said,  "  In 
England  the  ministers  are  king."  If  he  could  have  looked  for- 
ward, he  would  have  seen  that  the  time  was  coming  when  the 
House  of  Commons  would  be  king,  since  no  ministry  or  cabinet 
can  now  stand  which  does  not  have  the  confidence  and  support 
of  the  Commons. 

584.  The  "Pretender";  "the  Fifteen."  —  The  fact  that 
George  I.  exclusively  favored  the  Whigs  exasperated  the  opposite, 
or  Tory,  party,  and  the  Jacobites  or  extreme  members  of  that 
party *  in  Scotland,  with  the  secret  aid  of  many  in  England,  now 
rose,  in  the  hope  of  placing  on  the  throne  the  son  of  James  II., 
James  Edward  Stuart,  called  the  Chevalier2  by  his  friends,  but  the 
Pretender  by  his  enemies.  The  insurrection  was  led  by  John,  Earl 
of  Mar,  who,  from  his  frequent  change  of  politics,  had  got  the 
nickname  of  "  Bobbing  John."  Mar  encountered  the  royal  forces 
at  Sheriffmuir,  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  where  an  indecisive  battle 
was  fought,  which  the  old  ballad  thus  describes :  — 

"  There's  some  say  that  we  won,  and  some  say  that  they  won, 
And  some  say  that  none  won  at  a',  man  ; 
But  one  thing  is  sure,  that  at  Sheriffmuir 
A  battle  there  was,  which  I  saw,  man." 

On  the  same  day  of  the  fight  at  Sheriffmuir,  the  English  Jaco- 
bites, with  a  body  of  Scotch  allies,  marched  into  Preston,  Lanca- 
shire, and  there  surrendered,  almost  without  striking  a  blow.  The 
leaders  of  the  movement,  except  the  Earl  of  Mar,  who,  with  one 
or  two  others,  escaped  to  the  continent,  were  beheaded  or  hanged, 
and  about  a  thousand  of  the  rank  and  file  were  sold  as  slaves  to 
the  West  India  and  Virginia  plantations.  The  Pretender  himself 
landed  in  Scotland  a  few  weeks  after  the  defeat  of  his  friends ;  but 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  547. 

2  The  Chevalier  de  St.  George ;  after  the  birth  of  his  son  Charles  in  1720,  the 
former  was  known  by  the  nickname  of  the  Old  Pretender,  and  the  son  as  the  Young 
Pretender. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  311 

finding  no  encouragement  he  hurried  back  to  the  continent  again. 
Thus  ended  the  rebellion  known  from  the  year  of  its  outbreak 
(1715)  as  "the  Fifteen." 

One  result  of  this  rising  was  the  passage  of  an  act  extending  the 
duration  of  Parliament  from  three  years,  which  was  the  longest 
time  that  body  could  sit,  to  seven  years,  a  law  still  in  force.1  The 
object  of  this  change  was  to  do  away  with  the  excitement  and 
tendency  to  rebellion  at  that  time,  resulting  from  frequent  elec- 
tions, in  which  party  feeling  ran  to  dangerous  extremes. 

585.  The  South  Sea  Bubble.  —  A  few  years  later  a  gigantic 
enterprise  was  undertaken  by  the  South  Sea  Company,  a  body  of 
merchants,  originally  organized  as  a  company  trading  in  the  south- 
ern Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  A  Scotchman  named  Law  had 
started  a  similar  project  in  France,  known  as  the  Mississippi 
Company,  which  proposed  to  pay  off  the  national  debt  of  France 
from  the  profits  of  its  commerce  with  the  West  Indies  and  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Mississippi  River.  Following  his  exam- 
ple, the  South  Sea  Company  now  undertook  to  pay  off  the  English 
national  debt,  mainly,  it  is  said,  from  the  profits  of  the  slave 
trade  between  Africa  and  Brazil.2  Walpole  had  no  faith  in  the 
scheme,  and  attacked  it  vigorously  ;  but  other  influential  members 
of  the  government  gave  it  their  encouragement.  The  directors 
now  came  out  with  prospectuses  promising  dividends  of  fifty  per 
cent  on  all  money  invested.  Everybody  rushed  to  buy  stock, 
and  the  shares  rapidly  advanced  from  $500  to  $5000  a  share. 
A  speculative  craze  followed,  the  like  of  which  has  never  since 
been  known.  Bubble  companies  now  sprang  into  existence  with 
objects  almost  as  absurd  as  those  of  the  philosophers  whom  Swift 

1  The  Triennial  Act  provided  that  at  the  end  of  three  years  Parliament  must  be 
dissolved  and  a  new  election  held.    This  was  to  prevent  the  sovereign  from  keep- 
ing that  body  in  power  indefinitely,  contrary,  perhaps,  to  the  political  feeling  of  the 
country,  which  might  prefer  a  different  set  of  representatives.    Under  the  Septen- 
nial Act  the  time  was  extended  four  years,  making  seven  in  all,  but  the  sovereign 
may,  of  course,  dissolve  Parliament  at  any  time  before  that  limit  is  reached. 

2  Loftie's  History  of  London. 


312  LEADING    FACTS    Of    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ridiculed  in  "  Gulliver's  Travels,"  where  one  man  was  trying  to 
make  gunpowder  out  of  ice,  and  another  to  extract  sunbeams 
from  cucumbers.  A  mere  list  of  these  companies  would  fill  sev- 
eral pages.  One  was  to  give  instruction  in  astrology,  by  which 
every  man  might  be  able  to  foretell  his  own  destiny  by  examining 
the  stars  ;  a  second  was  to  manufacture  butter  out  of  beech-trees  ; 
a  third  was  for  a  wheel  for  driving  machinery,  which  once  started 
would  go  on  forever,  thereby  furnishing  a  cheap  perpetual  motion  ; 
a  fourth  projector,  going  beyond  all  the  rest  in  audacity,  had  the 
impudence  to  offer  stock  for  sale  in  an  enterprise  "  which  shall 
be  revealed  hereafter."  He  found  the  public  so  gullible  and 
so  greedy  for  gain,  that  he  sold  $10,000  worth  of  the  new  stock 
in  the  course  of  a  single  morning,  and  then  prudently  disap- 
peared with  the  cash,  though  where,  as  the  unfortunate  investors 
found  to  their  sorrow,  was  not  among  the  things  to  "be  revealed 
hereafter." 

The  narrow  passage  leading  to  the  stock  exchange  was  crowded 
all  day  long  with  struggling  fortune  hunters,  both  men  and  women. 
Suddenly,  when  the  excitement  was  at  its  height,  the  bubble  burst, 
as  Law's  scheme  in  France  had  a  little  earlier. 

Great  numbers  of  people  were  hopelessly  ruined,  and  the  cry 
for  vengeance  was  as  loud  as  the  bids  for  stocks  had  once  been. 
One  prominent  government  official  who  had  helped  to  blow  the 
bubble  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  another  committed  suicide 
rather  than  face  a  parliamentary  committee  of  investigation,  one 
of  whose  members  had  suggested  that  it  would  be  an  excellent 
plan  to  sew  the  South  Sea  directors  up  in  sacks  and  throw  them 
into  the  Thames. 

586.  How  a  Terrible  Disease  was  conquered.  —  But  among 
the  new  things  which  the  people  were  to  try  in  this  century  was 
one  which  led  to  most  beneficent  results.  For  many  generations 
the  great  scourge  of  Europe  was  the  small-pox.  Often  the  disease 
was  as  violent  as  the  plague,  and  carried  off  nearly  as  many  vic- 
tims. Medical  art  seemed  powerless  to  deal  with  it,  and  even 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  313 

in  years  of  ordinary  health  in  England  about  one  person  out  of  ten 
died  of  this  loathsome  pestilence.  In  the  early  part  of  George  I.'s 
reign,  Lady  Mary  Montagu,  then  travelling  in  Turkey,  wrote  that 
the  Turks  were  in  the  habit  of  inoculating  their  children  for  the 
disease,  which  rendered  it  much  milder  and  less  fatal,  and  that 
she  was  about  to  try  the  experiment  on  her  own  son. 

Later,  Lady  Montagu  returned  to  England,  and  through  her 
influence  and  example  the  practice  was  introduced  there.  It  was 
tried  first  on  five  criminals  in  Newgate  who  had  been  sentenced  to 
the  gallows,  but  were  promised  their  freedom  if  they  would  con- 
sent to  the  operation.  As  it  proved  a  complete  success,  the  Prin- 
cess of  Wales,  with  the  king's  consent,  caused  it  to  be  tried  on  her 
daughter,  with  equally  good  results.  The  medical  profession,  how- 
ever, generally  refused  to  sanction  the  practice,  and  the  clergy  in 
many  cases  preached  against  it  as  an  "  invention  of  Satan,  in- 
tended to  counteract  the  purposes  of  an  all-wise  Providence" 
but  through  the  perseverance  and  good  sense  of  Lady  Montagu, 
with  a  few  others,  the  new  practice  gradually  gained  ground.  Sub- 
sequently Dr.  Jenner  began  to  make  experiments  of  a  different 
kind  which  led  late  in  the  century  to  the  discovery  of  vaccination, 
by  which  millions  of  lives  have  been  saved ;  this,  with  the  dis- 
covery of  the  use  of  ether  in  our  own  time,  may  justly  be  called 
the  two  greatest  triumphs  of  the  art  of  medicine. 

587.  How  Walpole  governed.  —  Robert  Walpole  had  been  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet  during  most  of  the  reign  down  to  1721. 
He  then  became  premier,  and  continued  in  office  as  head  of  the 
government  until  near  the  middle  of  the  next  reign,  or  about 
twenty-one  years  in  all.  He  was  an  able  financier,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  the  National  Debt ;  he  believed  in  keeping 
the'  country  out  of  war,  and  also,  as  we  have  seen,  out  of  bubble 
speculation,  but  he  was  determined  at  all  cost  to  maintain  the 
Whig  party  in  power,  and  the  Protestant  Hanoverian  sovereigns 
on  the  throne. 

In  order  to  accomplish  this,  he  openly  bribed  members  of  Par- 


314  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

liament  to  support  his  party ;  he  bought  votes  and  carried  elec- 
tions by  gifts  of  titles,  honors,  and  bank-notes,  thus  proving  to  his 
own  satisfaction  the  truth  of  his  theory  that  most  men  "  have  their 
price,"  and  that  an  appeal  to  the  pocket-book  is  both  quicker  and 
surer  than  an  appeal  to  principle.  But  he  had  to  confess 
before  the  end  of  his  ministry  that  he  had  found  in  the  House 
of  Commons  one  "  boy  patriot,"  as  he  sneeringly  called  him, 
named  William  Pitt  (afterward  Earl  of  Chatham),  whom  neither 
his  money  could  buy  nor  his  ridicule  move. 

Bad  as  Walpole's  policy  was  in  its  corrupting  influence  on  the 
nation,  it  was  an  admission  that  the  time  had  come  when  the  king 
could  no  longer  venture  to  rule  by  force,  as  in  the  days  of  the 
Stuarts  :  it  meant  that  the  government  had  been  deprived  of  the 
arbitrary  power  it  once  wielded.  Walpole  was  a  fox,  not  a  lion ; 
and  "  foxes,"  as  Emerson  tells  us,  "  are  so  cunning  because  they 
are  not  strong." 

588.  Summary.  —  Though  George   I.  did   little   for   England 
except  keep  the  Pretender  from  the  throne  by  occupying  it  him- 
self, yet  that  was  no  small  advantage,  since  it  gave  the  country 
peace.     The  establishment  of  the  cabinet  system  of  government 
under  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  the  suppression  of  the  Jacobite  insur- 
rection, and  the  disastrous  collapse  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble  are 
the  principal  events. 

GEORGE  II.  — 1727-1760. 

589.  Accession  and  Character. — The  second  George,  who 
was  also  of  German  birth,  was  much  like  his  father,  though  he  had 
the  advantage  of  being  able  to  speak  broken  English  readily.    His 
wife,   Queen   Caroline,  was  an   able  woman,  who  possessed  the 
happy  art  of  ruling  her  husband  without  his  suspecting  it,  while 
she,  on  the  other  hand,  was  ruled  by  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  whom 
the   king  hated,   but  whom   he   had  to  keep  as  prime  minister. 
George  II.  was  a  good  soldier,  and  decidedly  preferred  war   to 
peace ;  but  Walpole  saw  clearly  that  the  peace  policy  was  best  for 
the  nation,  and  he  and  the  queen  managed  to  persuade  the  king 
not  to  draw  the  sword. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  315 

590.  The  War  of  Jenkins's  Ear.  —  At  the  end  of  twelve  years, 
however,  trouble  arose  with  Spain.  According  to  the  London 
newspapers  of  that  day,  a  certain  Captain  Jenkins,  while  cruising, 
or,  more  probably,  smuggling,  in  the  West  Indies,  had  been 
seized  by  the  Spaniards  and  barbarously  maltreated.  They,  if  we 
accept  his  story,  accused  him  of  attempting  to  Imd  English 
goods  contrary  to  law,  and  searched  his  ship.  Finding  nothing 
against  him,  they  vented  their  rage  and  disappointment  by  hang- 
ing him  to  the  yard-arm  of  his  vessel  until  he  was  nearly  dead. 
They  then  tore  off  one  of  his  ears,  and  bade  him  take  it  to  the 
king  of  England  with  their  compliments.  Jenkins,  it  is  said,  care- 
fully wrapped  up  his  ear  and  put  it  in  his  pocket.  When  he 
reached  England,  he  went  straight  to  the  House  of  Commons, 
drew  out  the  mutilated  ear,  showed  it  to  the  House,  and  de- 
manded justice.  The  Spanish  restrictions  on  English  trade  with 
the  Indies  and  South  America l  had  long  been  a  source  of  ill  feel- 
ing. The  sight  of  Jenkins's  ear  brought  matters  to  a  climax  ;  even 
Walpole  could  not  resist  the  clamor  for  vengeance,  and  contrary  to 
his  own  judgment  he  had  to  vote  for  war.  Though  Jenkins  was 
the  occasion,  the  real  object  of  the  war  was  to  compel  Spain  to 
permit  the  English  to  get  a  larger  share  in  the  lucrative  commerce 
of  the  New  World.  It  was  another  proof  that  America  was  now 
rapidly  becoming  an  important  factor  in  the  politics  of  Great 
Britain.  The  announcement  of  hostilities  with  Spain  was  received 
in  London  with  delight,  and  bells  pealed  from  every  steeple. 
"Yes,"  said  Walpole,  "they  may  ring  the  bells  now,  but  before 
long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands,"  —  a  prediction  which  was 
verified  by  the  heavy  losses  the  English  suffered  in  an  expedition 
against  Carthagena,  South  America,  though  later  Commodore 
Anson  inflicted  great  damage  on  the  Spanish  colonies,  and 
returned  to  England  with  large  amounts  of  captured  treasure. 


1  By  the  Assiento  (contract)  Treaty,  made  at  Utrecht  in  1713,  one  English  ship 
of  600  tons  burden  was  allowed  to  make  one  trading  voyage  a  year  to  the  colonies 
of  Spanish  America. 


3l6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

591.  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. — On  the   death  of 
Charles  VI.  of  the  house  of  Austria,  emperor  of  Germany,  his 
daughter  Maria  Theresa  succeeded   to   the  Austrian  dominions. 
France   now  united   with    Spain,   Prussia,   and   other   European 
powers  to  overturn   this  arrangement,  partly  out  of  jealousy  of 
the   Austria^   power,  and   partly  from   desire   to   get   control  of 
portions  of  the  Austrian  possessions.     England  and  Holland,  how- 
ever, both  desired  to  maintain  Austria  as  a  check  against  their 
old  enemy  France,  and  declared  war  in  1741.     During  this  war 
George  II.  went  over  to  the  continent  to  lead  the  English  forces 
in  person.     He  was  not  a  man  of  commanding  appearance,  but 
he  was  every  inch  a  soldier,  and  nothing  exhilarated  him  like  the 
smell  of  gunpowder.     At  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  in  Bavaria,  he 
got  down  from  his  horse,  and  drawing  his  sword,  cried  :  "  Come, 
boys,  now  behave  like  men,  and  the  French  will  soon  run."     With 
that,  followed  by  his  troops,  he  rushed  upon  the  enemy  with  such 
impetuosity  that  they  turned  and  fled.     This  was  the  last  battle  in 
which  an  English  king  took  part.     It  was   followed   by  that  of 
Fontenoy,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  which  the  French  gained  the 
victory.     After  nearly  eight  years'  fighting  the  Treaty  of  Aix  la 
Chapelle  secured  a  peace  advantageous  for  England.1 

592.  Invasion  by  the  Young-  Pretender;  " the  Forty-Five." 2 

—  While  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  was  in  progress, 
the  French  encouraged  James  II. 's  grandson,  Charles  Edward, 
the  Young  Pretender,3  to  make  an  attempt  on  the  English 
crown.  He  landed  in  1745  on  the  northern  coast  of  Scotland 
with  only  seven  followers,  but  with  the  aid  of  the  Scotch  Jacobites 
of  the  Highlands  he  gained  a  battle  over  the  English  at  Preston- 
pans,  near  Edinburgh.  Emboldened  by  his  success,  he  now 
marched  into  Derbyshire,  England,  on  his  way  to  London,  with 
the  hope,  that  as  he  advanced,  the  country  would  rise  in  his 

1  Aix  la  Chapelle  (Aks-lS-sha'per). 

2  So  called  from  the  Scotch  rising  of  1745. 
8  See  note  to  Paragraph  No.  584. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  3 1/ 

favor;  but  finding  no  support,  he  retreated  to  Scotland.  The 
next  year  he  and  his  adherents  were  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
ter at  Culloden,  near  Inverness.  With  the  flight  of  the  Pretender 
from  that  battle-field,  his  Scotch  sympathizers  lost  all  hope. 
There  were  no  more  ringing  Jacobite  songs,  sung  over  bowls  of 
steaming  punch,  of  "  Who'll  be  king  but  Charlie  ? "  and  "  Over 
the  water  to  Charlie  "  ;  and  when  in  1 788  Charles  died  in  Rome, 
the  unfortunate  house  of  Stuart  disappeared  from  history."  l 

593.  War  in  the  East;  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta;  Olive's 
Victories ;  English  Empire  of  India.  —  In  India  the  English  had 
long  had  important  trading-posts  at  Madras,  Bombay,  Calcutta, 
and  other  points,  but  they  had  not  had  control  of  the  country,  which 
was  governed  by  native  princes.  The  French  also  had  established 
an  important  trading-post  at  Pondicherry,  south  of  Madras,  and 
were  now  secretly  planning  through  alliance  with  the  native  rulers 
to  get  possession  of  the  entire  country.  They  had  met  with 
some  success  in  their  efforts,  and  the  times  seemed  to  favor  their 
gaining  still  greater  influence  unless  some  decided  measures 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  them.  At  this  juncture  Robert 
Clive,  a  young  man  who  had  been  employed  as  clerk  in  the 
service  of  the  English  East  India  Company,  but  who  had 
obtained  a  humble  position  in  the  army,  obtained  permission 
to  try  his  hand  at  driving  back  the  enemy.  It  was  the  very  work 
for  which  he  was  fitted.  He  met  with  success  from  the  first, 
and  he  followed  it  up  by  the  splendid  victory  of  Arcot  (1751), 
which  practically  gave  the  English  control  of  Southern  India. 
Shortly  after  that  Clive  returned  to  England.  During  his  absence 
the  native  prince  of  Bengal  undertook  an  expedition  against 

1  Devoted  loyalty  to  a  hopeless  cause  was  never  more  truly  or  pathetically 
expressed  than  in  some  of  these  Jacobite  songs,  notably  in  those  of  Scotland,  of 
which  the  following  lines  are  an  example  :  — 

"  Over  the  water,  and  over  the  sea, 
And  over  the  water  to  Charlie ; 
Come  weal,  come  woe,  we'll  gather  and  go, 
And  live  or  die  with  Charlie."  —  S«e  SCOTT'S  Redgauntlet. 


3l8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Calcutta,  a  wealthy  British  trading-post.  He  captured  the  fort 
which  protected  it,  and  seizing  the  principal  English  residents, 
one  hundred  and  forty-six  in  number,  drove  them  at  the  point 
of  the  sword  into  a  prison  called  the  "  Black  Hole,"  less  than 
twenty  feet  square  and  having  but  two  small  windows.  In  such 
a  climate,  in  the  fierce  heat  of  midsummer,  that  dungeon  would 
have  been  too  close  for  a  single  European  captive ;  to  crowd  it 
with  more  than  seven  score  persons  for  a  night  meant  death  by 
all  the  agonies  of  heat,  thirst,  and  suffocation.  In  vain  they 
endeavored  to  bribe  the  guard  to  transfer  part  of  them  to  another 
room,  in  vain  they  begged  for  mercy  and  tried  to  burst  the  door. 
Their  jailers  only  mocked  them  and  would  do  nothing.  Then, 
says  Macaulay,  "the  prisoners  went  mad  with  despair;  they 
trampled  each  other  down,  they  fought  to  get  at  the  windows, 
they  fought  for  the  pittance  of  water  which  was  given  them,  they 
raved,  prayed,  blasphemed,  and  implored  the  guards  to  fire  upon 
them.  At  length  the  tumult  died  away  in  low  gasps  and  moan- 
ings.  When  daylight  came  and  the  dungeon  was  opened,  the 
floor  was  heaped  with  mutilated  half-putrescent  corpses.  Out 
of  the  hundred  and  forty-six,  one  of  whom  was  a  woman,  only 
twenty-three  were  alive,  and  they  were  so  changed,  so  feeble, 
so  ghastly,  that  their  own  mothers  would  not  have  known  them." 
When  Clive  returned  he  was  met  with  a  cry  for  vengeance.  He 
gathered  his  troops,  recovered  Calcutta,  and  ended  by  fighting  that 
great  battle  of  Plassey  (1757),  which  was  the  means  of  permanently 
establishing  the  English  empire  in  India  on  a  firm  foundation.1 

594.  The  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe  and  America.  —  Before 
the  contest  had  closed  by  which  England  won  her  Asiatic  domin- 
ions, a  new  war  had  broken  out.  In  1756,  the  fifth  year  of  the 
New  Style,2  the  aggressive  designs  of  Frederick  the  Great  of 

1  See  Macaulay 's  Essay  on  Clive. 

2  In  1752  the  New  Style  of  reckoning  time  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain. 
Owing  to  a  slight  error  in  the  calendar,  the  year  had,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
been  gradually  losing,  so  that  in  1752  it  was  eleven  days  short  of  what  the  true 
computation  would  make  it.     Pope  Gregory  corrected  the  error  in  1582,  and  his 


No.   14. 


SKETCH  MAP  OF 

IlVD  I  A 


100     200      300     400      600     800 


The  shaded  portion  in  the  north- 
east shows  the  territory  acquired 
Bj/  the  .English  in  f76Sasa  result  of 
dive's  victory  at  flaasea-in  n$7. 


Longitude     East        80       from     Greenwibh 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  319 

Prussia  caused  such  alarm  that  a  grand  alliance  was  formed 
by  France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Poland  to  check  his  further 
advance.  Great  Britain,  however,  gave  her  support  to  Fred- 
erick, in  the  hope  of  humbling  her  old  enemy  France,  who,  in 
addition  to  her  attempts  to  oust  the  English  from  India,  was 
also  making  preparations  on  a  grand  scale  to  get  possession  of 
America.  Every  victory,  therefore,  which  the  British  forces  could 
gain  in  Europe  would,  by  crippling  the  French,  make  the  ultimate 
victory  in  America  so  much  the  more  certain ;  so  that  we  may 
look  upon  the  alliance  with  Frederick  as  an  indirect  means  em- 
ployed by  England  to  protect  her  colonies  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  These  had  now  extended  along  the  entire  coast,  from 
the  Kennebec  River,  in  Maine,  to  the  borders  of  Florida. 

The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  had  planted  colonies  at  Quebec 
and  Montreal,  on  the  St.  Lawrence ;  at  Detroit,  on  the  Great 
Lakes ;  at  New  Orleans  and  other  points  on  the  Mississippi. 
They  had  also  begun  to  build  a  line  of  forts  along  the  Ohio  River, 
which,  when  completed,  would  connect  their  northern  and  south- 
ern colonies,  and  thus  secure  to  them  the  whole  country  west 
of  the  Alleghanies.  Eventually,  they  undoubtedly  expected  to 
conquer  the  East  also,  to  erase  Virginia,  New  England,  and  all 
other  colonial  titles  from  the  map,  inscribing  in  their  place  the 
name  of  New  France. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  war,  the  English  were  unsuccessful. 
In  an  attempt  to  take  Fort  Duquesne,1  General  Braddock  met 
with  a  crushing  defeat  from  the  combined  French  and  Indian 
forces,  which  would  indeed  have  proved  his  utter  destruction  had 
not  a  young  .Virginian  named  George  Washington  saved  a  rem- 

calendar  was  adopted  in  nearly  every  country  of  Europe  except  Great  Britain 
and  Russia,  both  of  which  regarded  the  change  as  a  "  popish  measure."  But 
in  1751,  notwithstanding  the  popular  outcry,  Sept.  3,  1752,  was  made  Sept.  14, 
by  an  act  of  Parliament,  and  by  the  same  act  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  altered 
from  March  25  to  Jan.  i.  The  popular  clamor  against  the  reform  is  illustrated 
in  Hogarth's  picture  of  an  Election  Feast,  in  which  the  People's  party  carry  a 
banner,  with  the  inscription,  "  Give  us  back  our  eleven  days." 
1  Duquesne  (Doo  kane'). 


32O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

nant  of  his  troops  by  his  calmness  and  courage.  Not  long  after, 
a  second  expedition  was  sent  out  against  the  French  fort,  in  which 
Washington  led  the  advance.  The  garrison  fled  at  his  approach, 
the  English  colors  were  run  up,  and  the  place  was  named  Pitts- 
burgh, in  honor  of  William  Pitt,  then  virtually  prime  minister  of 
England.1 

About  the  same  time,  the  English  took  the  forts  on  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  drove  out  a  number  of  thousand  French  settlers  from 
Acadia.2  This  gave  them  control  of  Nova  Scotia.  Other  succes- 
ses followed,  by  which  they  obtained  possession  of  important 
points.  Finally,  Canada  was  won  from  the  French  by  Wolfe's 
victory  over  Montcalm,  at  Quebec  (1759),  where  both  gallant 
soldiers  verified  the  truth  of  the  lines,  "  The  paths  of  glory  lead 
but  to  the  grave/'3  which  the  English  general  had  quoted  to  some 
brother-officers  the  evening  before  the  attack.  This  ended  the 
war.  Spain  now  ceded  Florida  to  Great  Britain,  so  that  in  1763, 
when  peace  was  made,  the  English  flag  waved  over  the  whole 
eastern  half  of  the  American  continent,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Mississippi.  Thus,  within  a  comparatively  few  years,  Great  Bri- 
tain had  gained  an  empire  in  the  East  (India),  and  another  in 
the  West  (America) .  A  few  more  such  conquests  and  her  "  morn- 
ing drum-beat,  following  the  sun,  and  keeping  company  with  the 
hours  "  would  literally  "  circle  the  earth  with  one  continuous  and 
unbroken  strain  of  the  martial  airs  of  England."4 

1  He  was  secretary  of  state,  but  in  point  of  influence  was  head  of  the  Cabinet 
See  Paragraph  No.  587. 

*  See  The  Leading  Facts  of  American  History,  page  320,  and  note. 

3  "  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour ; 
The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 

—  GRAY'S  Elegy  (1750). 

"  I  would  rather  be  the  author  of  that  poem,"  said  Wolfe,  "  than  to  have  the  glory 
of  beating  the   French  to-morrow."    Wolfe  and   Montcalm  were  both  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  within  a  few  hours  of  each  other. 
4  Daniel  Webster,  speech  of  May  7,  1834. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  321 

595.  Moral  Condition  of  England;  Intemperance;  Rise  of 
the  Methodists.  —  But  grand  as  were  the  military  successes  of 
the  British  arms,  the  reign  of  George  II.  was  morally  torpid.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  public  men  like  Pitt,  the  majority  of  the 
Whig  party  seemed  animated  by  no  higher  motive  than  self- 
interest.  It  was  an  age  whose  want  of  faith,  coarseness,  and  bru- 
tality were  well  portrayed  by  Hogarth's  pencil  and  Fielding's  pen. 
For  a  long  time  intemperance  had  been  steadily  on  the  increase  ; 
strong  drink  had  taken  the  place  of  beer,  and  every  attempt  to 
restrict  the  traffic  was  met  at  the  elections  by  the  popular  cry, 
"  No  gin,  no  king."  The  London  taverns  were  thronged  day  and 
night,  and  in  the  windows  of  those  frequented  by  the  lowest  class 
placards  were  exhibited  with  the  tempting  announcement,  "  Drunk 
for  a  penny ;  dead  drunk  for  twopence  ;  clean  straw  for  nothing." 
On  the  straw  lay  men  and  women  in  beastly  helplessness.  Among 
the  upper  classes  matters  were  hardly  better.  It  was  a  common 
thing  for  great  statesmen  to  drink  at  public  dinners  until  one  by 
one  they  slid  out  of  their  seats  and  disappeared  under  the  table ; 
and  Robert  Walpole,  the  late  prime  minister  of  England,  said 
that  when  he  was  a  young  man  his  father  would  say  to  him  as  he 
poured  out  the  wine,  "  Come,  Robert,  you  shall  drink  twice  while 
I  drink  once,  for  I  will  not  permit  the  son  in  his  sober  senses  to 
be  witness  of  the  intoxication  of  his  father."  l 

Such  was  the  condition  of  England  when  a  great  religious  re- 
vival began.  Its  leader  was  a  student  at  Oxford,  named  John 
Wesley.  He,  with  his  brother  Charles  and  a  few  others,  were 
accustomed  to  meet  at  certain  hours  for  devotional  exercises. 
The  regularity  of  their  meetings  and  of  their  habits  generally  got 
for  them  the  name  of  Methodists,  which,  like  Quaker  and  many 
another  nickname  of  the  kind,  was  destined  to  become  a  title  of 
respect  and  honor. 

At  first  Wesley  had  no  intention  of  separating  from  the  Church 


1  See  Coxe's  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  Lecky's  England  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century. 


322  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

of  England,  but  labored  only  to  quicken  it  to  new  life  ;  eventually, 
however,  he  found  it  best  to  begin  a  more  extended  and  inde- 
pendent movement.  The  revival  swept  over  England  with  its 
regenerating  influence,  and  extended  across  the  sea  to  America. 
It  was  especially  powerful  among  those  who  had  hitherto  scoffed 
at  both  church  and  Bible.  Rough  and  hardened  men  were 
touched  and  melted  to  tears  of  repentance  by  the  fervor  of  this 
Oxford  graduate,  whom  neither  threats  nor  ridicule  could  turn 
aside  from  his  one  great  purpose  of  saving  souls. 

Unlike  the  church,  he  did  not  ask  the  multitude  to  come  to 
him  ;  he  went  to  them.  He  rode  on  horseback  from  one  end  of 
the  country  to  the  other,  preaching  in  the  fields,  under  trees,  which 
are  still  known  throughout  England  by  the  expressive  name  of 
"Gospel  Oaks,"  in  cities,  at  the  corners  of  the  streets,  on  the 
docks,  in  the  slums ;  in  fact,  wherever  he  could  find  listening  ears 
and  responsive  hearts. 

If  we  except  the  great  Puritan  movement  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  no  such  appeal  had  been  heard  since  the  days  when 
Augustine  and  his  band  of  monks  set  forth  on  their  mission  among 
the  barbarous  Saxons.  The  results  answered  fully  to  the  zeal  that 
awakened  them.  Better  than  the  growing  prosperity  of  extending 
commerce,  better  than  all  the  conquests  in  the  East  or  the  West, 
was  the  new  religious  spirit  which  stirred  the  people  of  both 
England  and  America,  and  provoked  the  national  church  to  emu- 
lation in  good  works,  —  which  planted  schools,  checked  intem- 
perance, and  brought  into  vigorous  activity  all  that  was  best  and 
bravest  in  a  race  that  when  true  to  itself  is  excelled  by  none. 

596.  Summary. — The  history  of  the  reign  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  movement  which  has  just  been  described,  and  in  the 
Asiatic,  continental,  and  American  wars  with  France  which  ended 
in  the  extension  of  the  power  of  Great  Britain  in  both  hemi- 
spheres. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.       323 


GEORGE  III.  — 1760-1820. 

597.  Accession  and  Character ;  the  King's  Struggle  with  the 
Whigs.  —  By  the  death  of  George  II.  his  grandson,1  George  III., 
now  came  to  the  throne.  The  new  king  was  a  man  of  excellent 
character,  who  prided  himself  on  having  been  born  an  English- 
man. He  had  the  best  interests  of  his  country  at  heart,  but  he 
lacked  many  of  the  qualities  necessary  to  a  great  ruler,  and  although 
thoroughly  conscientious,  he  was  narrow  and  stubborn  to  the  last 
degree.  His  mother,  who  had  seen  how  ministers  and  parties 
ruled  in  England,  was  determined  that  her  son  should  have  the 
control,  and  her  constant  injunction  to  the  young  prince  was,  "  Be 
king,  George,  be  king  !  "  so  that  when  he  came  to  power  George 
was  determined  to  be  king  if  self-will  would  make  him  one. 

But  beneath  this  spirit  of  self-will  there  was  moral  principle. 
In  being  king,  George  III.  intended  to  carry  out  a  reform  such  as 
neither  George  I.  nor  II.  could  have  accomplished,  providing  that 
either  had  had  the  will  to  undertake  it. 

The  great  Whig  families  of  rank  and  wealth  had  now  held  unin- 
terrupted possession  of  the  government  for  nearly  half  a  century. 
Their  influence  was  so  supreme  that  the  sovereign  had  practically 
become  a  mere  cipher,  dependent  for  his  authority  on  the  political 
support  which  he  received.  The  king  was  resolved  that  this  state 
of  things  should  continue  no  longer.  He  was  determined  to  reas- 
sert the  royal  authority  and  secure  a  government  which  should 
reflect  his  principles,  and  to  have  a  ministry  to  whom  he  could 
dictate,  instead  of  one  that  dictated  to  him. 

For  a  long  time  he  struggled  in  vain,  but  at  last  succeeded, 
and  found  in  Lord  North  a  premier  who  bowed  to  the  royal  will, 
and  endeavored  to  carry  out  George  III.'s  favorite  policy  of  "gov- 
erning for,  but  never  by,  the  people."  That  policy  finally  resulted 
in  calling  forth  the  famous  resolution  of  the  House  of  Commons 

1  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  George  II.'s  son,  died  before  his  father,  leaving 
his  son  George  heir  to  the  throne.  See  Table,  Paragraph  No.  581. 


324  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

that  the  king's  influence  "had  increased,  was  increasing,  and 
ought  to  be  diminished  "  ; 1  but  it  had  other  consequences,  which, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  were  more  far-reaching  and  disastrous 
than  any  one  in  the  House  of  Commons  then  imagined. 

598.  Taxation  of  the  American  Colonies. — The  wars  of  the 
two  preceding  reigns  had  largely  increased  the  National  Debt,  and 
the  government  resolved  to  compel  the  American  colonies  to  share 
in  a  more  direct  degree  than  they  had  yet  done,  the  constantly 
increasing  burden  of  taxation.  England  then,  like  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  regarded  her  colonies  in  a  totally  different  way 
from  what  she  does  at  present.  It  was  an  open  question  at  that 
time  whether  colonial  legislative  rights  existed  save  as  a  matter  of 
concession  or  favor  on  the  part  of  the  home  government.  It  is 
true  that  the  government  had  found  it  expedient  to  grant  or 
recognize  such  rights,  but  they  had  seldom  been  very  clearly 
defined,  and  in  many  important  respects  no  one  knew  just  what 
the  settlers  of  Virginia  or  Massachusetts  might  or  might  not  do.2 
The  general  theory  of  the  mother  country  was  that  the  colonies 
were  convenient  receptacles  for  the  surplus  population,  good  or 
bad,  of  the  British  Islands  ;  next,  that  they  were  valuable  as  sources 
of  revenue  and  profit,  politically  and  commercially ;  and  lastly, 
that  they  furnished  excellent  opportunities  for  the  king's  friends  to 
get  orifice  and  make  fortunes.  Such  was  the  feeling  about  India, 
and  such,  modified  by  difference  of  circumstances,  it  was  respect- 
ing America.  In  consequence  of  this  feeling,  the  policy  pursued 
toward  these  settlements  was  severely  restrictive.  By  the  Navi- 
gation and  other  laws  of  earlier  reigns,3  the  American  colonies 
were  obliged  to  confine  their  trade  to  England  alone,  or  to  such 
ports  as  she  directed.  If  they  ventured  to  send  a  hogshead  of 
tobacco  or  a  bale  of  produce  of  any  sort  to  another  country,  or 


1  Resolution  moved  by  Mr.  Dunning  in  1780. 

2  See  Story's  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
8  Navigation  Laws  :  see  Paragraph  No.  511. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  325 

by  any  but  an  English  ship,  they  forfeited  their  goods.1  On  the 
other  hand,  the  colonies  were  obliged  to  buy  the  products  of 
British  mills  and  factories,  whether  they  found  it  to  their  advan- 
tage or  not;  the  object  of  the  government  being  to  keep  the 
colonies  wholly  dependent. 

They  were  not  permitted  to  make  so  much  as  a  horse-shoe  nail 
or  print  even  a  copy  of  the  New  Testament,  but  they  might,  nay, 
they  must,  trade  with  England  and  pay  taxes  to  her. 

It  was  resistance  to  these  arbitrary  measures  which  first  caused 
trouble.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  colonies  endeavored  to 
evade  these  oppressive  laws.  To  punish  them  that  monarch 
revoked  the  New  England  charters,  thus  depriving  them  of  what- 
ever degree  of  self-government  they  enjoyed,  and  compelling  them 
to  submit  to  the  absolute  will  of  the  crown.  Under  the  tyrannical 
sway  of  Governor  Andros,  who  was  shortly  after  sent  over  by  James 
II.  to  rule,  or  rather  misrule,  in  the  king's  name,  an  explosion 
of  popular  wrath  occurred  which  showed  that,  loyal  as  the  colonies 
were,  they  would  not  continue  to  endure  treatment  which  no 
Englishman  at  home  would  bear. 

599.  The  Stamp  Act.  —  In  accordance  with  these  theories 
about  the  colonies,  and  to  meet  the  pressing  needs  of  the  home 
government,  the  English  ministry,  as  early  as  1 764,  proceeded  to  levy 
a  tax  on  the  colonies  in  return  for  the  protection  they  had  granted 
them  against  the  French  and  the  Indians.  The  colonists  had  paid, 
however,  as  they  believed,  their  full  proportion  of  the  expense  of 
the  war  out  of  their  own  pockets,  and  for  the  future  they  felt  abun- 
dantly able  to  protect  themselves.  But  notwithstanding  this  plea, 
a  specially  obnoxious  form  of  direct  tax,  called  the  Stamp  Act,  was 
brought  forward  in  1 765.  It  required  that  all  legal  documents,  such 
as  deeds,  wills,  notes,  receipts,  and  the  like,  should  be  written  uyon 
paper  bearing  high-priced  government  stamps.  Not  only  the  lead- 
ing men  among  the  colonists,  but  the  colonists  generally,  protested 

1  This  was  the  case  with  all  produce  of  any  importance ;  the  exceptions  need 
not  be  enumerated. 


326  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

against  the  act,  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  with  other  agents,  was 
sent  to  England  to  sustain  their  protests  by  argument  and  remon- 
strance. But  in  spite  of  their  efforts  the  law  was  passed,  and  the 
stamps  were  duly  sent  over.  The  people,  however,  were  deter- 
mined not  to  use  them,  and  much  tumult  ensued.  In  England 
strong  sympathy  with  the  colonists  was  expressed  by  William  Pitt 
(who  was  shortly  after  created  Earl  of  Chatham),  Burke,  Fox,  and 
generally  by  what  was  well  called  "  the  brains  of  Parliament." 
Pitt  in  particular  was  extremely  indignant.  He  urged  the  imme- 
diate repeal  of  the  act,  saying,  "1  rejoice  that  America  has  re- 
sisted." Pitt  further  declared  that  any  taxation  of  the  colonies 
without  their  representation  in  Parliament  was  tyranny,  that  oppo- 
sition to  such  taxation  was  a  duty,  and  that  the  spirit  shown  by  the 
Americans  was  the  same  that  in  England  had  withstood  the  des- 
potism of  the  Stuarts,  and  established  the  principle  once  for  all 
that  the  king  cannot  take  the  subject's  money  without  the  subject's 
consent.  Against  such  opposition  the  law  could  not  stand.  The 
act  was  accordingly  repealed,  amid  great  rejoicing  in  London ;  the 
church  bells  rang  a  peal  of  triumph,  and  the  shipping  in  the 
Thames  was  illuminated ;  but  the  good  effect  on  America  was  lost 
by  the  immediate  passage  of  another  act  which  maintained  the 
unconditional  right  of  England  to  legislate  for  the  colonies,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  tax  them,  if  they  saw  fit,  without  their  consent. 

600.  The  Tea  Tax  and  the  "Boston  Tea  Party,"  with  its 
Results. — Another  plan  was  now  devised  for  getting  money 
from  the  colonies.  Parliament  enacted  a  law  compelling  the 
Americans  to  pay  taxes  on  a  number  of  imports,  such  as  glass, 
paper,  and  tea.  In  opposition  to  this  law,  the  colonists  formed 
leagues  refusing  to  use  these  taxed  articles,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  encouraged  smugglers  to  secretly  land  them,  and  the  regular 
trade  suffered  accordingly.  Parliament,  finding  that  this  was  bad 
both  for  the  government  and  for  commerce,  now  abolished  all  of 
these  duties  except  that  on  tea,  which  was  retained  for  a  double 
purpose  :  first,  and  chiefly,  to  maintain  the  principle  of  the  right 


GOVERNMENT    BY    THE    PEOPLE. 

of  Great  Britain  to  tax  the  colonies,1  and  next,  to  aid  the  East 
India  Company,  which  was  pleading  piteously  for  help. 

In  consequence  mainly  of  the  refusal  of  the  American  colonists 
to  buy  tea,  the  London  warehouses  of  the  East  India  Company 
were  full  to  overflowing  with  surplus  stock,  and  the  company  itself 
was  in  a  half-bankrupt  condition.  The  custom  had  been  for  the 
company  to  bring  the  tea  to  England,  pay  a  tax  on  it,  and  then 
sell  it  to  be  reshipped  to  America,  where  the  colonists  were  ex- 
pected to  pay  a  tax.  To  aid  the  company  in  its  embarrassment, 
the  government  now  agreed  to  remit  this  first  duty  altogether,  and 
to  impose  a  tax  of  threepence  (six  cents)  a  pound  on  the  con- 
sumers in  America.  Such  an  arrangement  would,  they  argued, 
be  an  advantage  all  around,  for  first,  it  would  aid  the  company  to 
dispose  of  its  stock,  next,  it  would  enable  the  colonists  to  get  tea 
at  a  cheaper  rate  than  before,  and  lastly,  and  most  important  of 
all,  it  would  keep  the  principle  of  taxation  in  force.  But  the 
colonists  did  not  accept  this  reasoning.  In  itself  the  three-penny 
tax  was  a  trifle,  but  underlying  it  was  a  principle  which  seemed  to 
the  Americans  no  trifle ;  for  such  principles  revolutions  had  been 
fought  in  the  past ;  for  such  they  would  be  fought  in  the  future. 

The  colonists  resolved  not  to  have  the  tea  at  any  price.  A 
number  of  ships  laden  with  the  hated  taxed  herb  arrived  at  the 
port  of  Boston.  The  tea  was  seized  by  a  band  of  men  disguised 
as  Indians,  and  thrown  into  the  harbor.  The  news  of  that  action 
made  the  king  and  ministry  furious.  Parliament  sympathized 
with  the  government,  and  in  retaliation  passed  four  acts  unparal- 
leled for  their  severity.  The  first  was  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  which 
closed  the  harbor  to  all  trade  ;  the  second  was  the  Massachusetts 
Bill,  which  virtually  annulled  the  charter  of  the  colony,  took  the 
government  away  from  the  people  and  gave  it  to  the  king ;  the 
third  law  ordered  that  Americans  who  committed  murder  in 
resistance  to  the  iaw  should  be  sent  to  England  for  trial ;  the 
fourth  declared  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the 

1  "  There  must  be  one  tax,"  said  the  king,  "  to  keep  up  the  right." 


328  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Mississippi  a  part  of  Canada1  —  the  object  of  this  last  act  being 
to  conciliate  the  French  Canadians,  and  secure  their  help  against 
the  colonists  in  case  of  rebellion. 

Even  after  this  unjust  action  on  the  part  of  the  government  a 
compromise  might  have  been  effected,  and  peace  maintained,  if 
the  counsels  of  the  best  men  had  been  followed;  but  George  III. 
would  listen  to  no  policy  short  of  coercion  :  his  one  idea  of  being 
king  at  all  hazards  had  become  a  monomania.  Burke  denounced 
the  inexpediency  of  such  oppression,  and  Fox,  another  prominent 
member  of  Parliament,  wrote  :  "  It  is  intolerable  to  think  that 
it  should  be  in  the  power  of  one  blockhead  to  do  so  much  mis- 
chief." For  the  time,  at  least,  the  king  was  as  unreasonable  as 
any  of  the  Stuarts.  The  obstinacy  of  Charles  I.  cost  him  his  head, 
that  of  James  II.,  his  kingdom,  that  of  George  III.  resulted  in  a 
war  which  saddled  the  English  tax-payer  with  an  additional  debt 
of  six  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  and  ended  by  Great  Britain's 
losing  the  fairest  and  richest  dominions  that  she  or  any  nation 
ever  possessed. 

601.  The  American  Revolution;  Recognition  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States.  —  In  1775  war  began,  and  the 
fighting  at  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill  showed  that  the  Americans 
were  in  earnest.  The  cry  of  the  colonies  had  been,  "  No  taxation 
without  representation  "  ;  now  it  had  got  beyond  that,  and  was, 
"No  legislation  without  representation."  But  events  moved  so 
fast  that  even  this  did  not  long  suffice,  and  on  July  4,  1776,  the 
colonies,  in  congress  assembled,  solemnly  declared  themselves  free 
and  independent.  As  far  back  as  the  French  war  there  was  at 
least  one  man  who  foresaw  this  declaration.  After  the  English 
had  taken  Quebec,  Vergennes,2  an  eminent  French  statesman,  said 
of  the  American  colonies  with  respect  to  Great  Britain,  "  They 
stand  no  longer  in  need  of  her  protection ;  she  will  call  on  them 

1  Embracing  territory  now  divided  into  the  five  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin. 

2  Vergennes  (Ver'zhe'n'). 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  329 

to  contribute  toward  supporting  the  burdens  they  have  helped  to 
bring  on  her;  and  they  will  answer  by  striking  off  all  depend- 
ence." l 

This  prophecy  was  now  fulfilled.  Then  the  English  ministry 
became  alarmed,  they  were  ready  to  make  terms,  they  would  in 
fact  grant  anything  but  independence  ;*  but  they  had  opened  their 
eyes  to  the  facts  too  late,  and  nothing  short  of  independence 
would  now  satisfy  the  colonists.  It  is  said  that  attempts  were 
made  to  open  negotiations  with  General  Washington,  but  the 
commander-in-chief  declined  to  receive  a  letter  from  the  English 
government  addressed  to  him,  not  in  his  official  capacity,  but  as 
"  George  Washington,  Esq.,"  and  so  the  matter  came  to  nothing. 
The  war  went  on  with  varying  success  through  seven  heavy  years, 
until,  with  the  aid  of  the  French,  the  Americans  defeated  Lord 
Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  jySi.2  By  that  battle  France  got  her 
revenge  for  the  loss  of  Quebec  in  1759,  and  America  finally 
won  the  cause  for  which  she  had  spent  so  much  life  and  treas- 
ure. 

On  a  foggy  December  morning  in  1783,  George  III.  entered 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  with  a  faltering  voice  read  a  paper  in  which 
he  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
He  closed  his  reading  with  the  prayer  that  neither  Great  Britain  nor 
America  might  suffer  from  the  separation ;  and  he  expressed  the 
hope  that  religion,  language,  interest,  and  affection  might  prove 
an  effectual  bond  of  union  between  the  two  countries.  Eventu- 
ally the  separation  proved,  as  Goldwin  Smith  says,3  "a  mutual 
advantage,  since  it  removed  to  a  great  extent  the  arbitrary  restric- 
tions on  trade,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  commerce,  and  immensely 
increased  the  wealth  of  both  nations." 

1  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 

2  It  is  pleasant  to  know  that  a  hundred  years  later,  in  the  autumn  of  1881,  a 
number  of  English  gentlemen  were  present  at  the  centennial   celebration  of  the 
taking  of  Yorktown  to  express  their  hearty  good  will  toward  the  nation  which  their 
ancestors  had  tried  in  vain  to  keep  a  part  of  Great  Britain. 

3  Goldwin  Smith's  Lectures  on  Modern  History  (the  Foundation  of  the  Ameri- 
can Colonies).  *  This  was  in  1778,  after  the  French  treaty  with  the  U.  S. 


33O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

602.  The  Lord  George  Gordon  Riots.  —  While  the  American 
war  was  in  progress,  England  had  not  been  entirely  quiet  at  home. 
In  consequence  of  the  repeal  of  the  most  stringent  of  the  unwise 
and  unjust  laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics,  —  certainly  unwise 
and  unjust  in  their  continuance  for  so  many  generations,  if  not  in 
their  origin,  —  Lord  George  Gordon,  a  half-crazed  Scotch  fanatic, 
now  led  an  attack  upon  the  government  ( 1 780) .    For  six  days,  Lon- 
don was  at  the  mercy  of  a  furious  mob,  which  set  fire  to  Catholic 
chapels,  pillaged  many  dwellings,  and  committed  every  species  of 
outrage.     Newgate  prison  was  broken  into,  the  prisoners  released, 
and  the  prison  burned.1     No  one  was  safe  from  attack  who  did  not 
wear  a  blue  cockade  to  show  that  he  was  a  Protestant,  and  a  man's 
house  was  not  secure  unless  he  chalked  "  No  Popery  "  on  the  door 
in  conspicuous  letters ;  or,  as  one  individual  did  in  order  to  make 
doubly  sure,  "  No  Religion  whatever."     Before  the  riot  was  finally 
subdued  a  large  amount  of  property  had  been  destroyed  and  many 
lives  sacrificed. 

603.  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  —  The  same  year  that 
the  American  war  came  to  an  end  Warren  Hastings,  governor- 
general  of  India,  was  impeached  for  corrupt  and  cruel  government, 
and  was  tried  before  the  House  of  Lords,  gathered  in  Westminster 
Hall.     On  the  side  of  Hastings  was  the  powerful  East  India  Com- 
pany, ruling  over  a  territory  many  times  larger  than  the  whole  of 
Great  Britain.     Against  him  were  arrayed  the  three  ablest  and 
most  eloquent  men  in  England,  —  Burke,  Fox,  and  Sheridan.    The 
trial  was  continued  at  intervals  for  eight  years,  and  resulted  in  the 
acquittal  of  the  accused ;  but  it  was  proved  that  the  chief  business 
of  those  who  went  out  to  India  was  to  wring  a  fortune  from  the 
natives,  and  then  go  back  to  England  to  spend  it  in  a  life  of 
luxury ;  this  fact,  and  the  stupendous  corruption  that  was  shown 
to  exist,  eventually  broke  down  the  gigantic  monopoly,  and  the 
country  was  thrown  open  to  the  trade  of  all  nations.2 

1  See  Dickens's  Barnaby  Rudge. 

3  See  Burke's  Speeches ;  also  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Warren  Hastings. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  331 

604.  Liberty  of  the  Press;  Law  and  Prison  Keforms;  Abo- 
lition of  the  Slave  Trade.  —  Since  the  discontinuance  of  the 
censorship  of  the  press,1  though  newspapers  were  nominally  free 
to  discuss  public  affairs,  yet  the  government  had  no  intention 
of  permitting  any  severe  criticism.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were 
men  who  were  equally  determined  to  speak  their  minds  through 
the  press  on  political  as  on  all  other  matters.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  reign,  John  Wilkes,  an  able  but  scurrilous  writer,  attacked 
the  policy  of  the  crown  in  violent  terms.  A  few  years  later  a 
writer,  who  signed  himself  "  Junius,"  began  a  series  of  letters  in 
a  daily  paper,  in  which  he  handled  the  king  and  the  king's  friends 
still  more  roughly.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  government  to 
punish  Wilkes  and  the  publisher  of  the  "  Junius  "  letters,  but  it  sig- 
nally failed  in  both  cases,  and  the  public  feeling  was  plainly  in  favor 
of  the  right  of  the  freest  expression,2  which  was  eventually  con- 
ceded. 

Up  to  this  time  Parliamentary  debates  had  rarely  been  re- 
ported. In  fact,  under  the  Stuarts  and  the  Tudors,  members  of 
Parliament  would  have  run  the  risk  of  imprisonment  if  their  criti- 
cisms of  royalty  had  been  made  public  ;  but  now  the  papers  began 
to  contain  the  speeches  and  votes  of  both  Houses  on  important 
questions.  Every  effort  was  made  to  suppress  these  reports,  but 
again  the  press  gained  the  day  ;  and  henceforth  the  nation  learned 
whether  its  representatives  really  represented  the  will  of  the  people, 
and  so  was  able  to  hold  them  strictly  accountable,  —  a  matter  of 
vital  importance  in  every  free  government. 

Another  field  of  reform  was  also  found.  The  times  were 
brutal.  The  pillory  still  stood  in  the  centre  of  London  ;  3  and  if 
the  unfortunate  offender  who  was  put  in  it  escaped  with  a  shower 
of  mud  and  other  unsavory  missiles,  instead  of  clubs  and  brick- 


1  See  Paragraph  No.  550. 

2  Later,  during  the  excitement  caused  by  the  French  Revolution,  there  was  a  reac- 
tion from  this  feeling,  but  it  was  only  temporary. 

8  The  pillory  (see  Paragraph  No.  580)  was  not  abolished  until  the  accession  oi 
Queen  Victoria. 


332  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

bats,  he  was  lucky  indeed.  Gentlemen  of  fashion  arranged  pleas- 
ure parties  to  visit  the  penitentiaries  to  see  the  wretched  women 
whipped.  The  whole  code  of  criminal  law  vas  savagely  vin- 
dictive. Capital  punishment  was  inflicted  for  upwards  of  two 
hundred  offences,  many  of  which  would  now  be  thought  to  be 
sufficiently  punished  by  one  or  two  months'  imprisonment  in  the 
house  of  correction.  Not  only  men,  but  women  and  children 
even,  were  hanged  for  pilfering  goods  or  food  worth  a  few  shil- 
lings.1 The  jails  were  crowded  with  poor  wretches  whom  want 
had  driven  to  theft,  and  who  were  "  worked  off,"  as  the  saying 
was,  on  the  gallows  every  Monday  morning  in  batches  of  a  dozen 
or 'twenty,  in  sight  of  the  jeering,  drunken  crowds  who  gathered 
to  witness  their  death  agonies. 

Through  the  efforts  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  Jeremy  Bentham, 
and  others,  a  reform  was  effected  in  this  bloody  code  ;  and  by  the 
labors  of  the  philanthropic  John  Howard,  and  forty  years  later  of 
Elizabeth  Fry,  the  jails  were  purified  of  abuses  which  had  made 
them  not  only  dens  of  suffering  and  disease,  but  schools  of  crime 
as  well.  The  laws  respecting  punishment  for  debt  were  also 
changed  for  the  better,  and  thousands  of  miserable  beings  who 
were  without  means  to  satisfy  their  creditors  were  now  set  free, 
instead  of  being  kept  in  useless  life-long  imprisonment.  At  the 
same  time  Clarkson,  Wilberforce,  Fox,  and  Pitt  were  endeavoring 
to  abolish  that  relic  of  barbarism,  the  African  slave  trade,  which, 
after  twenty  years  of  persistent  effort  both  in  Parliament  and  out, 
they  at  last  accomplished. 

605.  War  with  France ;  Battle  of  the  Nile ;  Trafalgar ;  Spain, 
—  In  1 789  the  French  Revolution  broke  out.  It  was  a  violent 
and  successful  attempt  to  destroy  those  feudal  institutions  which 
the  nation  had  outgrown,  and  which  had,  as  we  have  seen,  disap- 
peared gradually  in  England  after  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  At  first 
the  revolutionists  received  the  hearty  sympathy  of  many  of  the 

1  Five  shillings,  or  $1.25,  was  the  hanging  limit ;  anything  stolen  above  that  sum 
in  money  or  goods  sent  the  thief  to  the  gallows. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  333 

Whig  party,  but  after  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette,1  England  became  alarmed  not  only  at  the  horri- 
ble scenes  of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  but  at  the  establishment  of 
that  democratic  Republic  which  seemed  to  justify  them  ;  and 
joined  an  alliance  of  the  principal  European  powers  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restoring  the  French  monarchy.  Napoleon  had  now 
become  the  real  head  of  the  French  nation,  and  seemed  bent  on 
making  himself  master  of  all  Europe.  He  undertook  an  expedition 
against  Egypt  and  the  East  which  was  intended  as  a  stepping- 
stone  toward  the  ultimate  conquest  of  the  English  empire  in  India, 
but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by  Nelson's  victory  over  the  French 
fleet  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile.  With  the  assistance  of  Spain, 
Napoleon  next  prepared  to  invade  England,  and  was  so  confident 
of  success  that  he  caused  a  gold  medal  to  be  struck,  bearing  the 
inscription,  "  Descent  upon  England."  "  Struck  at  London,  1804." 
But  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  on  whose  co-operation 
Napoleon  was  depending  were  driven  by  the  English  into  the  har- 
bor of  Cadiz,  and  the  great  expedition  was  postponed  for  another 
year.  When,  in  the  autumn  of  1805,  they  left  Cadiz  harbor,  Lord 
Nelson  lay  waiting  for  them  off  Cape  Trafalgar,2  near  by.  Two 
days  later  he  descried  the  enemy  at  daybreak.  The  men  on  both 
sides  felt  that  the  decisive  struggle  was  at  hand.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  long,  heavy  swell  the  sea  was  calm,  with  a  light  breeze, 
but  sufficient  to  bring  the  two  fleets  gradually  within  range. 

"  As   they  drifted  on  their  path 
There  was  silence  deep  as  death; 
And  the  boldest  held  his  breath 
For  a  time."  8 

Just  before  the  action,  Nelson  ran  up  this  signal  to  the  mast- 
head of  his  ship,  where  all  might  see  it :  "  ENGLAND  EXPECTS 
EVERY  MAN  TO  DO  HIS  DUTY."  The  answer  to  it  was  three  ring- 
ing cheers  from  the  entire  fleet,  and  the  fight  began.  When  it 

1  See  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution  (Death  of  Marie  Antoinette). 

2  Cape  Trafalgar  (Traf-al'-gar) . 

8  Campbell's  Battle  of  the  Baltic,  but  applicable  as  well  to  Trafalgar. 


334  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ended,  Napoleon's  boasted  navy  was  no  more.  Trafalgar  Square, 
in  the  heart  of  London,  with  its  tall  column  bearing  aloft  a  statue 
of  Nelson,  commemorates  the  decisive  victory,  which  was  dearly 
bought  with  the  life  of  the  great  admiral.  The  battle  of  Trafalgar 
snuffed  out  Napoleon's  projected  invasion  of  England.  He  had 
lost  his  ships,  and  their  commander  had  in  despair  committed  sui- 
cide ;  so  the  French  emperor  could  no  longer  hope  to  bridge  "  the 
ditch,"  as  he  derisively  called  the  boisterous  Channel,  whose  waves 
rose  like  a  wall  between  him  and  the  island  which  he  hated.  A 
few  years  later,  Napoleon,  who  had  taken  possession  of  Spain,  and 
placed  his  brother  on  the  throne,  was  driven  from  that  country  by 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  destined  to  be  better  known  as  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  the  crown  was  restored  to  the  Spanish  nation. 

606.  Second  War  with  the  United  States.— The  United 
States  waged  its  first  war  with  Great  Britain  to  gain  an  independ- 
ent national  existence  ;  in  1812  it  declared  a  second  war  to  secure 
its  personal  and  maritime  rights.  During  the  long  and  desperate 
struggle  between  England  and  France,  each  nation  had  prohibited 
neutral  powers  from  commercial  intercourse  with  the  other,  or 
with  any  country  friendly  to  the  other.  Furthermore,  the  English 
government  had  laid  down  the  principle  that  a  person  born  on 
British  soil  could  not  become  a  citizen  of  another  nation,  but  that 
"  once  an  Englishman  always  an  Englishman  "  was  the  only  true 
doctrine.  In  accordance  with  that  theory,  it  claimed  the  right  to 
search  American  ships  and  take  from  them  and  force  into  their 
own  service  any  seamen  supposed  to  be  of  British  birth.  In  this 
way  Great  Britain  had  seized  more  than  6000  men,  and  notwith- 
standing their  protest  that  they  were  American  citizens,  either  by 
birth  or  by  naturalization,  had  compelled  them  to  enter  the  Eng- 
lish navy.  Other  points  in  dispute  between  the  two  countries 
were  in  a  fair  way  of  being  settled  amicably,  but  there  appeared  to 
be  no  method  of  coming  to  terms  in  regard  to  the  question  of 
search  and  impressment,  which  was  the  most  important  of  all, 
since,  though  the  demand  of  the  United  States  was,  in  the  popular 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  335 

phrase  of  the  day,  for  "  Free  Trade  and  Sailors'  Rights,"  it  was 
the  last  which  was  especially  emphasized.  In  1812  war  against 
Great  Britain  was  declared,  and  an  attack  made  on  Canada  which 
resulted  in  the  American  forces  being  driven  back.  During  the 
war  British  troops  landed  in  Maryland,  burned  the  Capitol  and 
other  public  buildings  in  Washington,  and  destroyed  the  Congres- 
sional Library.  On  the  other  hand,  the  American  navy  had  unex- 
pected and  extraordinary  successes  on  the  ocean  and  the  lakes. 
"Out  of  sixteen  sea  combats  with  approximately  equal  forces,  the 
Americans  gained  thirteen."1  The  contest  closed  with  the  signal 
defeat  of  the  English  at  New  Orleans  under  Sir  Edward  Paken- 
ham,  brother-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  by  the  Americans 
under  General  Andrew  Jackson.  The  right  of  search  was  thence- 
forth dropped,  although  it  was  not  formally  abandoned  by  Great 
Britain  until  1856. 

607.  Battle  of  Waterloo. — On  Sunday,  June  18,  1815,  the 
English  war  against  Napoleon,  which  had  been  carried  on  almost 
constantly  since  his  accession  to  power,  culminated  in  the  deci- 
sive battle  of  Waterloo.2  Napoleon  had  crossed  the  Belgian 
frontier,  in  order  that  he  might  come  up  with  the  British  before 
they  could  form  a  junction  with  their  Prussian  allies.  All  the  pre- 
vious night  the  rain  had  fallen  in  torrents,  and  when  the  soldiers 
rose  from  their  cheerless  bivouac  in  the  trampled  and  muddy  fields 
of  rye,  a  drizzling  rain  was  still  falling.  Napoleon  planned  the 
battle  with  the  purpose  of  destroying  first  the  English  and  then  the 
Prussian  forces,  but  Wellington  held  his  own  against  the  furious 
attacks  of  the  French.  It  was  evident,  however,  that  even  the 
"  Iron  Duke,"  as  he  was  called,  could  not  continue  to  withstand 
the  terrible  assaults  many  hours  longer.  As  time  passed  'on,  and 
he  saw  his  solid  squares  melting  away  under  the  murderous  French 
fire,  as  line  after  line  of  his  soldiers  coming  forward,  silently 
stepped  into  the  places  of  their  fallen  comrades,  while  the  ex- 

1  Fiske's  How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation. 

2  Waterloo :  near  Brussels,  Belgium. 


336  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

pected  Prussian  reinforcements  still  delayed  their  appearance, 
the  English  commander  exclaimed,  "  O  that  night  or  Bliicher ] 
would  come  !  "  At  last  Bliicher  with  his  Prussians  did  come, 
and  as  Grouchy,2  the  leader  of  a  division  on  whom  Napoleon 
was  counting,  did  not,  Waterloo  was  finally  won  by  the  combined 
strength  of  the  allies,  and  not  long  after,  Napoleon  was  sent  to  die 
a  prisoner  on  the  desolate  rock  of  St.  Helena. 

When  all  was  over,  Wellington  said  to  Bliicher,  as  he  stood  by 
him  on  a  little  eminence  looking  down  upon  the  field  covered  with 
the  dead  and  dying,  "  A  great  victory  is  the  saddest  thing  on  earth, 
except  a  great  defeat." 

With  that  victory  ended  the  second  Hundred  Years'  War  of 
England  with  France,  which  began  with  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  in  1 704  3  under  Marlborough,  and  which  originally  had 
for  its  double  object  the  humbling  of  the  power  that  threatened  the 
independence  of  England,  and  the  protection  of  those  colonies 
which  had  now  separated  from  the  mother-country,  and  had 
become,  partly  through  French  help,  the  republic  of  the  United 
States  of  America. 

608.  Increase  of  the  National  Debt;  Taxation. — Owing  to 
these  hundred  years  and  more  of  war,  the  national  debt  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  which  in  1688  was  much  less  than  a  million 
of  pounds  had  now  reached  the  enormous  amount  of  over  nine 
hundred  millions  (or  $4,500,000,000)  bearing  yearly  interest  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  $160,000,000.*  So  great  had  been  the  strain  on 
the  finances  of  the  country,  that  the  Bank  of  England  suspended 
payment,  and  many  heavy  failures  occurred.  In  addition  to  this, 
a  succession  of  bad  harvests  sent  up  the  price  of  wheat  to  such  a 
point  that  at  one  time  an  ordinary  sized  loaf  of  bread  cost  the 
farm  laborer  more  than  half  a  day's  wages.  Taxes  had  gone  on 
increasing  until  it  seemed  as  though  the  people  could  not  endure 
the  burden.  As  Sydney  Smith  declared,  with  entire  truth,  there 

l  Blucher  (Bloo'ker).  2  Grouchy  (Grou'she'). 

3  See  Paragraph  No.  557.         4  Encyclopaedia  Bi  itannica,  "  National  Debt." 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  337 

were  duties  on  everything.  They  began,  he  said,  in  childhood 
with  "the  boy's  taxed  top  "  ;  they  followed  to  old  age,  until  at  last 
"  the  dying  Englishman  pouring  his  taxed  medicine  into  a  taxed 
spoon,  flung  himself  back  on  a  taxed  bed,  and  died  in  the  arms  of 
an  apothecary  who  had  payed  a  tax  of  a  hundred  pounds  for  the 
privilege  of  putting  him  to  death." l 

609.  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  —  For  a  century 
after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  Ireland  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  had 
a  history.2  The  iron  hand  of  English  despotism  had  crushed  the 
spirit  out  of  the  inhabitants,  and  they  suffered  in  silence.  Dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  destitution  of  the 
people  was  so  great  that  Dean  Swift,  in  bitter  mockery  of  the  gov- 
ernment's neglect,  published  what  he  called  his  "Modest  Proposal" 
for  relieving  the  misery  of  the  half-starved  millions  by  allowing 
them,  as  he  said,  to  cook  and  eat  their  own  children,  or  else  sell 
them  to  the  butchers.  After  the  French  wars  broke  out  an  asso- 
ciation was  formed  called  the  "  United  Irishmen,"  which  endeav- 
ored to  secure  the  aid  of  France.  The  rebellion  was  quelled,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  English  government 
succeeded  by  the  most  •unscrupulous  bribery  in  buying  up  a  suf- 
ficent  number  of  members  of  the  so-called  Irish  Parliament  to 
secure  a  vote  in  favor  of  union  with  Great  Britain,  and  in  1800 
the  two  countries  were  joined — at  least  in  name  —  under  the 
title  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

William  Pitt,  son  of  the  late  Earl  of  Chatham,  used  his  influence 
to  obtain  for  Ireland  a  fair  representation  in  the  united  Parliament, 
urging  that  it  was  for  the  interest  of  the  two  countries  that  both 
Catholics  and  Protestants  should  be  eligible  for  election.  His 
advice,  however,  was  rejected,  and  although  a  large  majority  of  the 
Irish  people  were  zealous  Romanists,  not  a  single  member  of  that 
church  was  admitted  to  the  House  of  Commons.  To  increase  if 
possible  the  hatred  of  England,  free  trade  with  England  had  up  to 

1  Sydney  Smith's  Essays,  Review  of  Seybert's  Annals  of  the  United  States. 
?  Qreen's  English  People. 


338  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

this  time  been  withheld  from  the  Irish,  greatly  to  their  loss.  They 
were  thus  treated  as  a  foreign  and  hostile  race,  from  a  commer- 
cial as  well  as  a  religious  point  of  view. 

610.  Material  Progress;  Canals;  Steam;  Distress  of  the 
Working  Class;  the  North  of  England. — The  reign  of  George 
III.  was,  however,  in  several  directions  one  of  marked  progress, 
especially  in  England.  Just  after  the  king's  accession  a  canal 
was  opened  in  the  north  for  the  transportation  of  goods.  It  was 
the  first  of  a  system  which  has  since  become  so  widely  extended 
that  the  canals  of  England  now  exceed  in  length  its  navigable 
rivers.  The  two  form  such  a  complete  network  of  water  com- 
munication that  it  is  said  that  no  place  in  the  realm  is  more  than 
fifteen  miles  distant  from  this  means  of  transportation,  which  con- 
nects all  the  large  towns  with  each  other  and  with  the  chief  ports. 

In  1769  James  Watt  obtained  the  first  patent  for  his  improved 
steam  engine.1  The  story  is  told  that  he  took  a  working  model 
of  it  to  show  to  the  king.  His  majesty  patronizingly  asked  him, 
"Well,  my  man,  what  have  you  to  sell?"  The  inventor  promptly 
answered,  "  What  kings  covet,  may  it  please  your  majesty,  — 
power! "  The  story  is  perhaps  too  good  to  be  true,  but  the 
fact  of  the  "power"  could  not  be  denied  —  power,  too,  not 
simply  mechanical,  but  in  its  results,  moral  and  political  as  well. 
In  1811  such  was  the  increase  of  machinery  driven  by  steam,  and 
such  the  improvements  made  by  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  Crompton, 
and  others  in  machinery  for  spinning  and  weaving,  that  much 
distress  arose  among  the  working  classes.  The  price  of  bread 
was  growing  higher  and  higher,  while  in  many  districts  skilled 
operatives  could  not  earn  by  their  utmost  efforts  two  dollars  a 
week.  They  saw  their  hand-labor  supplanted  by  patent  "  mon- 
sters of  iron  and  fire,"  which  never  grew  weary,  which  subsisted 
on  water  and  coal,  and  never  asked  for  wages.  Led  by  a  man 
named  Ludd,  the  starving  workmen  attacked  the  mills,  broke  the 
machinery  in  pieces,  and  sometimes  burnt  the  buildings.  The 

i  See  Paragraph  No.  570, 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  339 

riots  were  at  length  suppressed,  and  a  number  of  the  leaders  exe- 
cuted ;  but  a  great  change  for  the  better  was  at  hand,  and  steam 
was  soon  to  remedy  the  evils  it  had  seemingly  created. 

Up  to  this  period  the  North  of  England  remained  the  poorest 
part  of  the  country.  The  population  was  sparse,  ignorant,  and 
unprosperous.  It  was  in  the  south  that  improvements  originated. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  north  fought  against  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  monasteries ;  in  Elizabeth's  reign  it  resisted  Protestant- 
ism ;  in  that  of  George  I.  it  sided  with  the  Pretender.  But  steam 
wrought  a  great  change.  Factories  were  built,  population  in- 
creased, cities  sprang  up,  and  wealth  grew  apace.  Birmingham, 
Manchester,  Leeds,  Nottingham,  Leicester,  Sheffield,  and  Liver- 
pool made  the  north  a  new  country.  The  saying  is  now  current 
that  "  what  Lancashire  thinks  to-day,  England  will  think  to-mor- 
row." So  much  for  James  Watt's  "power"  and  its  results. 

611.  Discovery  of  Oxygen ;  Introduction  of  Gas;  the  Safety 
Lamp;  Steam  Navigation.  —  Notwithstanding  the  progress  that 
had  been  made  in  many  departments  of  knowledge,  the  science 
of  chemistry  remained  almost  stationary  until,  in  1774,  Dr.  Joseph 
Priestley  discovered  oxygen,  the  most  abundant,  as  well  as  the 
most  important,  element  in  nature.  That  discovery  not  only 
"  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  chemical  science," *  but,  as  Pro- 
fessor Liebig  remarks,  "  the  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere,  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  of  water,  and  of 
their  influence  upon  the  life  of  plants  and  animals  was  linked  with 
it."  It  proved,  also,  of  direct  practical  utility,  since  the  success- 
ful pursuit  of  innumerable  trades  and  manufactures,  with  the 
profitable  separation  of  metals  from  their  ores,  stands  in  close  con- 
nection with  the  facts  which  Priestley's  experiments  made  known. 

As  intellectual  light  spread,  so  also  did  material  light.  It  was 
not  until  near  the  close  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  that  London 
could  be  said  to  be  lighted  at  night.  A  few  feeble  oil  lamps  were 
in  use,  but  the  streets  were  dark  and  dangerous,  and  highway  rob- 

1  Professor  Youmans's  New  Chemistry. 


34O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

beries  were  frequent.  About  1815  a  company  was  formed  to  light 
the  city  with  gas.  After  much  opposition  from  those  who  were  in 
the  whale-oil  interest  the  enterprise  succeeded.  The  new  light,  as 
Miss  Martineau  has  said,  did  more  to  prevent  crime  than  all  that 
the  government  had  accomplished  since  the  days  of  Alfred.  It 
changed,  too,  the  whole  aspect  of  the  capital,  though  it  was  only  the 
forerunner  of  the  electric  light,  which  has  since  changed  it  even 
more.  The  sight  of  the  great  city  now,  when  viewed  at  night  from 
Highgate  archway  on  the  north,  or  looking  down  the  Thames  from 
Westminster  bridge,  is  something  never  to  be  forgotten.  It  gives 
one  a  realizing  sense  of  the  immensity  of  "  this  province  covered 
with  houses,"  which  cannot  be  got  so  well  in  any  other  way.  It 
brings  to  mind,  too,  those  lines  expressive  of  the  contrasts  of  wealth 
and  poverty,  success  and  failure,  inevitable  in  such  a  place  :  — 

"  O  gleaming  lamps  of  London,  that  gem  the  city's  crown, 

What  fortunes  lie  within  you,  O  lights  of  London  town  ! 
******** 

O  cruel  lamps  of  London,  if  tears  your  light  could  drown, 

Your  victims'  eyes  would  weep  them,  O  lights  of  London  town." l 

The  same  year  in  which  gas  was  introduced,  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
invented  the  miner's  safety  lamp.  Without  seeking  a  patent,  he 
generously  gave  his  invention  to  the  world,  finding  his  reward  in 
the  knowledge  that  it  would  be  the  means  of  saving  thousands  of 
lives  wherever  men  are  called  to  work  underground. 

Since  Watt  had  demonstrated  the  value  of  steam  for  driving 
machinery,  a  number  of  inventors  had  been  experimenting  with 
the  new  power,  in  the  hope  that  they  might  apply  it  to  propelling 
vessels.  In  1807  Robert  Fulton,  an  American,  built  the  first 
steamboat,  and  made  the  voyage  from  New  York  to  Albany  in  it. 
Shortly  after,  his  vessel  began  to  make  regular  trips  on  the  Hudson. 
A  number  of  years  later  a  similar  boat  began  to  carry  passengers 
on  the  Clyde,  in  Scotland.  Finally,  in  1819,  the  bold  undertaking 
was  made  of  crossing  the  Atlantic  by  steam.  An  American 
steamship,  the  Savannah,  of  about  three  hundred  tons,  set  the 

1  From  the  play  "  The  Lights  of  London." 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  341 

example  by  a  voyage  from  the  United  States  to  Liverpool.  Dr. 
Lardner,  an  English  scientist,  had  proved  to  his  own  satisfaction 
that  ocean  steam  navigation  was  impracticable.  The  book  con- 
taining the  doctor's  demonstration  was  brought  to  America  by  the 
Savannah  on  her  return.  Twenty-one  years  afterward,  the  Cunard 
and  other  great  lines,  with  fleets  of  vessels  ranging  from  5,000 
to  8,000  tons,  were  established,  making  passages  from  continent  to 
continent  in  about  as  many  days  as  the  ordinary  sailing-vessels 
formerly  required  weeks.  The  fact  that  during  a  period  of  more 
than  forty-five  years  one  of  these  lines  has  never  lost  a  passenger 
is  conclusive  proof  that  Providence  is  on  the  side  of  steam,  when 
steam  has  men  that  know  how  to  handle  it. 

612.  Literature;  Art;  Education;  Dress. — The  reign  of  George 
III.  is  marked  by  a  long  list  of  names  eminent  in  letters  and 
art.  First  in  point  of  time  among  these  stands  Dr.  Samuel  John- 
son, the  compiler  of  the  first  English  dictionary  worthy  of  the 
name,  and  that  on  which  those  of  our  own  day  are  based  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  author  also  of  the  story  of  Rasselas  — 
which  may  be  called  a  satire  on  discontent  and  the  search  after 
happiness.  Next,  stands  Johnson's  friend,  Oliver  Goldsmith, 
famous  for  his  genius,  his  wit,  his  improvidence,  which  was 
always  getting  him  into  trouble,  and  for  his  novel,  the  "  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,"  with  his  poems.  Edward  Gibbon,  David  Hume,  author 
of  the  history  of  England,  and  Adam  Smith  come  next  in  time. 
In  1776  the  first  published  his  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  which  after  more  than  a  hundred  years  still  stands  the 
ablest  history  of  the  subject  in  any  language.  In  the  same  year 
Adam  Smith  issued  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of 
the  Wealth  of  Nations,"  which  had  an  immediate  and  permanent 
effect  on  legislation  respecting  commerce,  trade,  and  finance  ;  dur- 
ing this  period,  also,  Sir  William  Blackstone  became  prominent  as 
a  writer  on  law,  and  Edmund  Burke,  the  distinguished  orator  and 
statesman,  wrote  his  "  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution."  The 
poets  Burns,  Byron,  and  Shelley,  with  Sheridan,  the  orator  and  dra- 


342  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

matist,  and  Sterne,  the  humorist,  belong  to  this  reign ;  so,  too,  does 
the  witty  satirist,  Sydney  Smith,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  whose  works, 
like  those  of  Shakespeare,  have  "  made  the  dead  past  live  again." 
Maria  Edgeworth  and  Jane  Austen  have  left  admirable  pictures  of 
the  age  in  their  stories  of  Irish  and  English  life.  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth  began  to  attract  attention  toward  the  last  of  this 
period,  and  to  be  much  read  by  those  who  loved  the  poetry  of 
thought  and  the  poetry  of  nature  ;  while  early  in  the  next  reign, 
Charles  La.mb  published  his  admirable  "  Essays  of  Elia." 

In  art  we  have  the  first  English  painters  and  engravers.  Ho- 
garth, who  died  a  few  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  reign,  was 
celebrated  for  his  coarse  but  perfect  representations  of  low  life 
and  street  scenes  ;  and  his  series  of  election  pictures  with  his  "  Beer 
Lane"  and  "  Gin  Alley"  are  valuable  for  the  insight  they  give  into 
the  history  of  the  times.  The  chief  portrait  painters  were  Rey- 
nolds, Lawrence,  and  Gainsborough,  of  whom  the  last  afterward 
became  noted  for  his  landscapes.  They  were  followed  by  Wilkie, 
whose  pictures  of  "  The  Rent  Day,"  "  The  Reading  of  the  Will," 
with  many  others,  tell  a  story  of  interest  to  every  one  who  looks  at 
them.  Last,  and  greatest,  came  Turner,  who  surpassed  all  former 
artists  in  his  power  of  reproducing  scenes  in  nature.  At  the  same 
time,  Bewick,  whose  cuts  used  to  be  the  delight  of  every  child  that 
read  "^Esop's  Fables,"  gave  a  new  impulse  to  wood-engraving, 
while  Flaxman  rose  to  be  the  leading  English  sculptor,  and  Wedge- 
wood  introduced  useful  and  beautiful  articles  of  pottery. 

In  common  school  education  little  advance  had  been  made  for 
many  generations.  In  the  country  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
were  nearly  as  ignorant  as  they  were  in  the  darkest  part  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Hardly  a  peasant  over  forty  years  of  age  could  be 
found  who  could  read  a  verse  in  the  Bible,  and  not  one  in  ten 
could  write  his  name.  There  were  no  cheap  books  or  newspapers, 
no  railroads,  no  system  of  public  instruction.  The  poor  scarcely 
ever  left  the  counties  in  which  they  were  born,  they  knew  nothing 
of  what  was  going  on  in  the  world,  and  their  education  was  wholly 
of  that  practical  kind  which  comes  from  work  and  things,  not 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  343 

books  and  teachers ;  yet  many  of  them  with  only  these  simple 
helps  found  out  two  secrets  which  the  highest  culture  sometimes 
misses,  —  how  to  be  useful  and  how  to  be  happy.1 

The  close  of  George  III.'s  reign  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
present  age.  It  was  indicated  in  many  ways,  and  among  others 
by  the  change  in  dress.  Gentlemen  were  leaving  off  the  picturesque 
costumes  of  the  past  —  the  cocked  hats,  elaborate  wigs,  silk  stock- 
ings, ruffles,  velvet  coats,  and  swords,  —  and  gradually  putting  on 
the  plain  democratic  garb,  sober  in  cut  and  color,  by  which  we 
know  them  to-day.2 

613.  Last  Days  of  George  HI.  —  In  1820  George  III.  died 
at  the  age  of  seventy-eight.     During  ten  years  he  had  been  blind, 
deaf,  and  insane,  having  lost  his  reason  not  very  long  after  the 
jubilee,  which  celebrated  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign  in  1809. 
Once,  in  a  lucid  interval,  he  was  found  by  the  queen  singing  a 
hymn  and  playing  an  accompaniment  on  the  harpsichord.     He 
then  knelt  and  prayed  aloud  for  her,  for  his  family,  and  for  the 
nation ;   and  in  closing,  for  himself,  that  it  might  please  God  to 
avert  his  heavy  calamity,   or  grant  him  resignation   to   bear  it. 
Then  he  burst  into  tears,  and  his  reason  again  fled.3     In  con- 
sequence  of  the   incapacity  of  the   king,    his    eldest    son   was 
appointed  Prince  Regent,  and  on  the  king's  death  came  to  the 
throne. 

614.  Summary.  —  The  long  reign  of  George  III.,  covering  over 
sixty  years,  was  in  every  way  eventful.     During  that  time  England 
lost  her  possessions  in  America.     During  that  period,  also,  Ireland 
was  united  to  Great  Britain.     The  wars  with  France,  which  lasted 
more  than  twenty  years,  ended  in  the  victory  of  Trafalgar  and  the 
still  greater  victory  of  Waterloo.     In  consequence  of  these  wars, 
with  that  of  the  American  revolution,  the  national  debt  of  Great 
Britain  rose  to  a  height  which  rendered  the  burden  of  taxation 

1  See  Wordsworth's  poem  "  Resolution  and  Independence." 

2  See  Martin's  Civil  Costumes  of  Great  Britain. 
8  See  Thackeray's  Four  Georges. 


344  LEADING  FACTS  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY. 

well-nigh  insupportable.  The  second  war  with  the  United  States 
in  1812  resulted  in  completing  American  independence,  and  Eng- 
land was  forced  to  relinquish  the  right  of  search.  The  two  greatest 
reforms  of  the  period  were  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  and 
the  mitigation  of  the  laws  against  debt  and  crime ;  the  chief 
material  improvement  was  the  application  of  steam  to  manufac- 
turing and  navigation. 

GEORGE  IV.— 1820-1830. 

615.  Accession  and  Character  of  George  IV.  —  George  IV., 
eldest  son  of  the  late  king,  came  to  the  throne  in  his  fifty-eighth 
year ;  though  owing  to  his  father's  insanity,  he  had  virtually  been 
king  since  1811.     His  habits  of  life  had  made  him  a  selfish,  disso- 
lute spendthrift,  who,  like  Charles  II.,  cared  only  for  pleasure. 
Though  while  Prince  of  Wales  he  had  had   for   many  years  an 
income  of  upwards  of  half  a  million  of  dollars,  which  was  largely 
increased   at   a   later   period,   yet   he   was   always   hopelessly  in 
debt.     In    1795    Parliament  appropriated  over  $3,000,000  to  re- 
lieve him  from  his  most  pressing  creditors,  but  his  wild  extrava- 
gance soon  involved  him  in  difficulties  again,  so  that  had  it  not 
been  for  help  given  by  the  long-suffering  tax-payers,  his  royal  high- 
ness must  have  become  as  bankrupt  in  purse  as  he  was  in  character. 
After  his  accession  matters  became  worse  rather  than  better.     At 
his  coronation,  which  cost  the  nation  over  a  million  of  dollars, 
he  appeared  in  hired  jewels,  which  he  forgot  to  return,  and  which 
Parliament  had  to  pay  for.     Not  only  did  he  waste  the  nation's 
money  more  recklessly  than  ever,  but  he  used  whatever  political 
influence  he  had  to  oppose  such  means  of  reform  as  the  times 
demanded. 

616.  Discontent  and  Conspiracy;  the  " Manchester  Massacre." 
—  When  in  1811  the  prince  became  regent,  he  desired  to  form  a 
Whig  ministry,  not  because  he   cared   for  Whig  principles,  but 
solely  for  the  reason  that  he  should  thereby  be  acting  in  oppo- 
sition to  his  father's  wishes.     Finding  his  purpose  impracticable, 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.          345 

the  prince  accepted  Tory  rule,  and  a  government  was  formed  with 
Lord  Liverpool  as  its  nominal  head,  which  had  for  its  main  object 
the  exclusion  of  the  Catholics  from  representation  in  Parliament. 

Liverpool  was  a  dull,  well-meaning  man,  who  utterly  failed  to 
comprehend  the  real  tendency  of  the  age.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
commoner  who  had  been  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  had  always 
had  a  reputation  for  honest  obstinacy,  and  for  little  else.  After  he 
became  premier,  Madame  de  Stae'l,  who  was  visiting  England, 
asked  him  one  day,  "  What  has  become  of  that  very  stupid  man, 
Mr.  Jenkinson ?  "  "Madame,"  answered  the  unfortunate  minister, 
"  he  is  now  Lord  Liverpool."  l 

From  such  a  government,  which  continued  in  power  for  fifteen 
years,  nothing  but  trouble  could  be  expected.  The  misery  of  the 
country  was  great.  Food  was  selling  at  famine  prices.  Thou- 
sands were  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  and  tens  of  thousands  did 
not  get  enough  to  eat.  Trade  was  seriously  depressed,  and  multi- 
tudes were  unable  to  obtain  work.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
suffering  masses  undertook  to  hold  public  meetings  to  discuss  the 
cause  and  cure  of  these  evils,  but  the  authorities  looked  upon  these 
meetings  with  suspicion,  especially  as  violent  speeches  against  the 
government  were  often  made,  and  dispersed  them  as  seditious  and 
tending  to  riot  and  rebellion.  Many  large  towns  at  this  period 
had  no  voice  in  legislation.  At  Birmingham,  which  was  one  of 
this  class,  the  citizens  had  met  and  chosen,  though  without  legal 
authority,  a  representative  to  Parliament.  Manchester,  another 
important  manufacturing  town,  now  determined  to  do  the  same. 
The  people  were  warned  not  to  assemble,  but  they  persisted  in 
doing  so,  on  the  ground  that  peaceful  discussion,  with  the  election 
of  a  representative,  was  no  violation  of  law.  The  meeting  was 
held,  and  through  the  blundering  of  a  magistrate,  it  ended  in 
an  attack  by  a  body  of  troops,  by  which  many  people  were  wounded 
and  a  number  killed.  The  bitter  feeling  caused  by  the  "  Manches- 


1  Earl's  English  Premiers,  Vol.  II.    Madame  de  Stae'l  (Stal)  :  a  celebrated  French 
writer. 


346  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ter  Massacre,"  as  it  was  called,  and  by  the  repressive  measures  of 
the  government  generally,  led  to  the  "  Cato  Street  Conspiracy." 
Shortly  after  the  accession  of  the  new  king  a  few  desperate  men 
banded  together,  and  meeting  in  a  stable  in  Cato  Street,  London, 
formed  a  plot  to  murder  Lord  Liverpool  and  the  entire  Cabinet  at 
a  dinner  at  which  all  the  ministers  were  to  be  present.  The  plot 
was  discovered,  and  the  conspirators  speedily  disposed  of  by  the 
gallows  or  transportation,  but  nothing  was  done  to  relieve  the  suf- 
fering which  had  provoked  the  intended  crime.  No  new  conspir- 
acy was  attempted,  but  in  the  course  of  the  next  twenty-five  years 
a  silent  revolution  took  place,  which,  as  we  shall  see  later,  obtained 
for  the  people  that  representation  in  Parliament  which  they  had 
hitherto  vainly  attempted  to  get. 

617.  Queen  Caroline.  —  In  1785  Prince  George  had,  contrary 
to  law,1  married  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  a  Roman  Catholic  lady  of 
excellent  character,  and  possessed  of  great  beauty.  Ten  years 
later,  partly  through  royal  compulsion,  and  partly  to  get  money  to 
pay  off  some  of  his  numerous  debts,  the  prince  married  his  cousin, 
Caroline  of  Brunswick.  The  union  proved  a  source  of  unhappi- 
ness  to  both.  The  princess  lacked  both  discretion  and  delicacy, 
and  her  husband,  who  disliked  her  from  the  first,  was  reckless  and 
brutal  toward  her.  He  separated  from  her  in  a  year's  time,  and 
as  soon  as  she  could  she  withdrew  to  the  continent.  On  his 
accession  to  the  throne  the  king  excluded  Queen  Caroline's  name 
from  the  Prayer  Book,  and  next  applied  to  Parliament  for  a 
divorce  on  the  ground  of  the  queen's  unfaithfulness  to  her  mar- 
riage vows. 

Henry  Brougham,  afterwards  Lord  Brougham,  acted  as  the 
queen's  counsel.  No  sufficient  evidence  was  brought  against  her, 
and  the  ministry  declined  to  take  further  action.  It  was  decided, 
however,  that  she  could  not  claim  the  honor  of  coronation,  to 

1  By  the  Royal  Marriage  Act  of  1772,  no  descendant  of  George  II.  could  make 
a  legal  marriage  without  the  consent  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  unless  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  and  the  marriage  was  not  objected  to  by  Parliament. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.          347 

which,  as  queen-consort,  she  had  a  right  sanctioned  by  custom 
but  not  secured  by  law.  When  the  king  was  crowned,  no  place 
was  provided  for  her.  By  the  advice  of  her  counsel,  she  pre- 
sented herself  at  the  entrance  of  Westminster  Abbey  as  the  coro- 
nation ceremony  was  about  to  begin ;  but,  by  order  of  her 
husband,  admission  was  refused,  and  she  retired  to  die,  heart 
broken,  a  few  days  after. 

618.  Three  Reforms.  —  In  1828  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  a 
Tory  in  politics,  became  prime  minister.  His  sympathies  in  all 
matters  of  legislation  were  with  the  king,  but  he  made  a  virtue  of 
necessity,  and  for  the  time  acted  with  those  who  demanded  reform. 
The  Corporation  Act,  which  was  originally  passed  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  and  had  for  its  object  the  exclusion  of  Dissenters  from 
all  town  or  corporate  offices,  was  now  repealed  :  henceforth  a  man 
might  become  a  mayor,  alderman,  or  bank  president,  and  the  like, 
without  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England.  At  the  same  time 
the  Test  Act,  which  had  also  been  passed  in  Charles  II. 's  reign  to 
keep  both  Catholics  and  Dissenters  out  of  government  offices, 
whether  civil  or  military,  was  repealed.  The  next  year  (1829)  a 
still  greater  reform  was  carried.  For  a  long  period  the  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation  party  had  been  laboring  to  obtain  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  unjust  laws  which  had  been  on  the  statute  books  for  over 
a  century  and  a  half,  by  which  Catholics  were  excluded  from  the 
right  to  sit  in  Parliament  —  laws  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  were 
enacted  at  the  time  of  the  alleged  "  Popish  Plot,"  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  perjured  evidence  given  by  Titus  Gates.1  After  the 
most  strenuous  opposition  of  the  king  and  his  party,  including  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  the  latter  became  convinced  that  further 
opposition  was  useless,  and  he  took  the  lead  in  securing  the  suc- 
cess of  a  measure  which  he  heartily  hated,  solely,  as  he  declared, 
to  avert  civil  war. 

But  at  the  same  time  that  Catholic  emancipation  was  granted, 
an  act  was  passed  depriving  a  very  large  class  of  small  Irish  land- 

1  See  Paragraph  No.  530.    See  also  Sydney  Smith's  "  Peter  Plymley's  Letters." 


348  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

holders  of  the  right  to  vote,  on  the  pretext  that  they  would  be 
influenced  by  either  their  landlord  or  their  priest.1 

Under  the  new  order  of  things,  Daniel  O'Connell,  an  Irish  gen- 
tleman of  an  old  and  honorable  family,  and  a  man  of  distinguished 
ability,  came  forward  as  leader  of  the  Catholics.  After  much  diffi- 
culty he  succeeded  in  taking  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  henceforth  devoted  himself,  though  without  avail,  to  the 
repeal  of  the  act  uniting  Ireland  with  England,  and  to  the  restora- 
tion of  an  independent  Irish  Parliament. 

619.  The  New  Police.  —  Although  London  had  now  a  popula- 
tion of  a  million  and  a  half,  it  still  had  no  effective  police.     The 
guardians  of  the  peace  at  that  date  were  infirm  old  men  who 
spent  their  time  dozing   in   sentry-boxes,  and   had   neither  the 
strength  nor   energy  to  be  of  service  in  any  emergency.     The 
young  fellows  of  fashion  considered  these  venerable  constables  as 
legitimate  game,  and  often  amused  themselves  by  upsetting  the 
sentry-boxes  with  their  occupants,  leaving  the  latter  helpless  in  the 
street,  kicking  and  struggling  like  turtles  turned  on  their  backs,  and 
as  powerless  to  get  on  their  feet  again.     During  the  last  year  of 
the  reign  Sir  Robert  Peel  got  a  bill  passed  which  organized  a  new 
and   thoroughly   efficient  police   force,   properly  equipped    and 
uniformed.     Great  was  the  outcry  against  this   innovation,  and 
the  "men  in  blue"  were  hooted  at,  not  only  by  London  "  roughs," 
but  by  respectable  citizens,  as  "  Bobbies  "  or  "  Peelers,"  in  derisive 
allusion  to  their  founder.     But  the  "  Bobbies,"  who  do  not  carry 
even  a  visible  club,  were  not  to  be  jeered  out  of  existence,  and 
they  have  henceforth  continued  to  do  their  duty  in  a  way  which 
long  since  gained  for  them  the  good  will  of  all  who  care  for  the 
preservation  of  law  and  order. 

620.  Death  of  the  King.  —  George  IV.  died  in  the  summer 
of  1830.     Of  him  it  may  well  be  said,  though  in  a  very  different 
sense  from  that  in  which  the  expression  was  originally  used,  that 

l  The  property  qualification  in  Ireland  was  raised  from  £2  to  £10. 


GOVERNMENT    BY   THE    PEOPLE.  349 

"  nothing  in  his  life  became  him  like  the  leaving  it."  l  During  his 
ten  years'  reign  he  had  squandered  enormous  sums  of  money  in 
gambling  and  dissipation,  and  had  done  his  utmost  to  block  the 
wheels  of  political  progress.  How  far  this  son  of  an  insane  father 
was  responsible,  it  may  not  be  for  us  to  judge.  Walter  Scott,  who 
had  a  kind  word  for  almost  every  one,  and  especially  for  any  one 
of  the  Tory  party,  did  not  fail  to  say  something  in  praise  of  the 
generous  good  nature  of  his  friend  George  IV.  The  sad  thing  is 
that  his  voice  is  the  only  one.  In  a  whole  nation  the  rest  are 
silent ;  or,  if  they  speak,  it  is  neither  to  commend  nor  to  defend, 
but  to  condemn. 

621.  Summary. — The   legislative   reforms   of  George    IV.'s 
reign  are  its  chief  features.     The  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corpora- 
tion acts  and  Catholic  emancipation  were  tardy  measures  of  jus- 
tice, for  which  neither  the   king  nor  his  ministers  deserve  any 
credit,  but  which,  none  the  less,  accomplished  great  and  perma- 
nent good. 

WILLIAM    IV.  -  1830-1837. 

622.  Accession  and  Character  of  William  IV. — As  George 
IV.  left  no  heir,  his  brother  William,  a  man  of  sixty-five,  now 
came  to  the  throne.     He  had  passed  most  of  his  life  on  ship- 
board, having  been  placed  in  the  navy  when  a  mere  lad.     He  was 
somewhat  rough  in  his  manner,  and  cared  nothing  for  the  cere- 
mony and  etiquette  that  were  so  dear  to  both  George  III.  and  IV. 
His  faults,  however,  were  on  the  surface.     He  was  frank,  hearty, 
and  a  friend  to  the  people,  to  whom  he  was  familiarly  known  as 
"the  Sailor  King." 

623.  Need  of  Parliamentary  Reform;  Rotten  Boroughs.— 

From  the  beginning  of  this  reign  it  was  evident  that  the  great 
question  which  must  come  up  for  settlement  was  that  of  Parlia- 
mentary representation.  Large  numbers  of  the  people  of  England 
had  now  no  voice  in  the  government.  This  unfortunate  state  of 


Shakespeare's  Macbeth,  Act  I.  Sc.  4. 


35O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

things  was  chiefly  the  result  of  the  great  changes  which  had  taken 
place  in  the  growth  of  the  population  of  the  midlands  and  the 
north.  Since  the  introduction  of  steam  the  rapid  increase  of 
manufactures  and  commerce  had  built  up  many  large  towns  in 
the  iron,  coal,  pottery,  and  wool-raising  districts,  such  as  Birming- 
ham, Leeds,  Sheffield,  Manchester,  which  could  not  send  a  mem- 
ber to  Parliament ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  many  places  in  the 
South  of  England  which  did  send,  had  long  since  ceased  to 
be  of  any  importance.  Furthermore,  the  representation  was  of 
the  most  hap-hazard  description.  In  one  section  no  one  could 
vote  except  substantial  property-holders,  in  another,  none  but 
town  officers,  while  in  a  third,  every  man  who  had  a  tenement  big 
enough  to  boil  a  pot  in,  and  hence  called  a  "  Potwalloper,"  pos- 
sessed the  right.  To  this  singular  state  of  things  the  nation  had 
long  been  indifferent.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  inhabitants 
often  had  no  desire  either  to  go  to  Parliament  themselves  or  to 
send  others.  The  expense  of  the  journey  was  great,  the  compen- 
sation was  small,  and  unless  some  important  matter  of  special 
interest  to  the  people  was  at  stake,  they  preferred  staying  at 
home ;  so  that  it  was  often  almost  as  difficult  for  the  sheriff  to 
get  a  distant  county  member  up  to  the  House  of  Commons  in 
London  as  it  would  have  been  to  carry  him  there  a  prisoner  to 
be  tried  for  his  life.  Now,  however,  everything  was  changed ; 
the  rise  of  political  parties,  the  constant  and  heavy  taxation,  the 
jealousy  of  the  increase  of  royal  authority,  the  influence  and 
honor  of  the  position  of  a  Parliamentary  representative,  all  con- 
spired to  make  men  eager  to  obtain  their  full  share  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  government.  This  new  interest  had  begun  as  far 
back  as  the  civil  wars  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  when  Crom- 
well came  to  power  he  effected  many  much-needed  reforms  ;  but 
after  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  the  Protector's  wise  measures 
were  repealed  or  neglected,  the  old  order,  or  rather  disorder,  again 
asserted  itself,  and  in  many  cases  matters  were  worse  than  ever. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  borough  or  city  of  Old  Sarum,  in  Wilt- 
shire, which  had  once  been  an  important  place  had,  at  an  early 


GOVERNMENT    BY    THE    PEOPLE.  35! 

period,  gradually  declined  through  the  growth  of  New  Sarum,  or 
Salisbury,  near  by.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  parent  city  had 
so  completely  decayed  that  not  a  single  habitation  was  left  on  the 
desolate  hill-top  where  the  castle  and  cathedral  once  stood.  At 
the  foot  of  the  hill  was  an  old  tree.  In  1830  the  owner  of  that 
tree  and  of  the  field  where  it  grew  sent  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment —  that  action  represented  what  had  been  regularly  going  on 
for  something  like  three  hundred  years  !  In  Bath,  on  the  other 
hand,  none  of  the  citizens,  out  of  a  large  population,  might  vote 
except  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  common  council.  These  places 
now  got  the  significant  name  of  "rotten  boroughs"  from  the  fact 
that  whether  large  or  small  there  was  no  longer  any  sound  political 
life  existing  in  them. 

624.  The  Reform  Bill.  —  For  fifty  years  after  the  coming  in  of 
the  Georges  the  country  had  been  ruled  by  a  powerful  Whig 
monopoly.  Under  George  III.  that  monopoly  was  broken,  and 
the  Tories  got  possession  of  the  government ;  but  whichever  party 
ruled,  Parliament,  owing  to  the  "rotten  borough"  system,  no  longer 
represented  the  natiofi,  but  simply  stood  for  the  will  of  certain 
wealthy  landholders  and  town  corporations.  A  loud  and  deter- 
mined demand  was  now  made  for  reform.  Among  those  who 
helped  to  urge  forward  the  movement  none  was  more  active  or 
influential  among  the  common  people  than  William  Cobbett,  a 
self-educated  man,  but  a  vigorous  and  fearless  writer,  who  for  years 
published  a  small  newspaper  called  the  Political  Register,  which 
was  especially  devoted  to  securing  a  just  and  uniform  system  of 
representation. 

On  the  accession  of  William  IV.  the  pressure  for  reform  became 
so  great  that  Parliament  was  forced  to  act.  Lord  Russell  brought 
in  a  bill  providing  for  the  abolition  of  the  "  rotten  boroughs  "  and 
for  a  fair  system  of  elections.  Those  who  owned  or  controlled 
these  boroughs  had  no  intention  of  giving  them  up.  Their  oppo- 
nents, however,  were  equally  determined,  and  they  knew  that  they 
had  the  support  of  the  nation.  In  a  speech  which  the  Rev, 


352  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Sydney  Smith  made  at  Taunton,  he  compared  the  futile  resistance 
of  the  House  of  Lords  to  the  proposed  reform,  to  Mrs.  Parting- 
ton's  attempt  to  drive  back  the  rising  tide  of  the  Atlantic  with 
her  mop.  The  ocean  rose,  and  Mrs.  Partington,  seizing  her  mop, 
rose  against  it ;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  good  lady's  efforts,  the 
Atlantic  got  the  best  of  it ;  so  the  speaker  prophesied  that  in  this 
case  the  people,  like  the  Atlantic,  would  in  the  end  carry  the  day.1 

When  the  bill  came  up,  the  greater  part  of  the  lords  and  bishops, 
who,  so  far  as  they  were  concerned  personally,  had  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  they  wanted,  voted  against  the  reform.  To  them 
the  proposed  law  seemed,  perhaps  with  good  reason,  to  threaten 
the  stability  of  the  government.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  was 
particularly  prominent  among  those  who  were  hostile  to  it,  and 
wrote :  "  I  don't  generally  take  a  gloomy  view  of  things,  but  I 
confess  that,  knowing  all  that  I  do,  I  cannot  see  what  is  to  save 
the  Church,  or  property,  or  colonies,  or  union  with  Ireland,  or, 
eventually,  monarchy,  if  the  Reform  Bill  passes."8 

The  king  dissolved  Parliament ;  a  new  one  was  elected,  but  it 
was  still  more  determined  to  carry  the  measure.  Again  the  Upper 
House  rejected  it.  Then  a  period  of  wild  excitement  ensued. 
The  people  in  many  of  the  towns  collected  in  the  public  squares, 
tolled  the  church  bells,  built  bonfires  in  which  they  burned  in 
effigy  the  bishops,  and  other  leading  opponents  of  the  bill,  and 
cried  out  for  the  abolition  of  the  House  of  Lords.  In  London  the 
rabble  smashed  the  windows  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In 
Bristol  and  Derby  terrible  riots  broke  out,  and  at  Nottingham  the 
mob  fired  and  destroyed  the  castle  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who 
was  noted  for  his  opposition  to  reform,  while  all  over  the  country 
shouts  were  heard,  "  The  Bill,  the  whole  Bill,  and  nothing  but  the 
Bill ! " 

625.  Passage  of  the  Bill  (1832) ;  Results.  —  In  the  spring  of 
1832  the  battle  began  again  with  greater  fierceness  than  ever. 

1  Sydney  Smith's  Essays  and  Speeches. 

2  Wellington's  Despatches  and  Letters,  Vol.  II.  451. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  353 

Again  the  House  of  Commons  voted  the  bill,  and  once  again  the 
Lords  defeated  it. 

It  was  evident  that  matters  could  not  go  on  in  this  manner 
much  longer.  The  ministry,  as  a  final  measure,  appealed  to  the 
king  for  help.  If  the  Lords  would  not  pass  the  bill,  the  sovereign 
had  the  power  to  create  a  sufficient  nnml  er  of  new  Whig  lords  who 
would.  William  now  yielded  to  the  pressure,  and  much  against 
his  will,  gave  the  following  document  to  his  prime  minister :  "  The 
King  grants  permission  to  Earl  Grey,  and  to  his  Chancellor,  Lord 
Brougham,  to  create  such  a  number  of  Peers  as  will  be  sufficient  to 
insure  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill — first  calling  up  peers'  eldest 
sons.  WILLIAM  R.,  Windsor,  May  17,  1832. "x 

But  there  was  no  occasion  to  make  use  of  this  permission.  As 
soon  as  the  peers  found  that  the  king  had  granted  it,  they  yielded. 
Those  who  had  opposed  the  bill  now  stayed  away ;  the  measure 
was  carried,  received  the  royal  signature,  and  became  law.  Its 
passage  brought  about  a  beneficent  change,  (i)  It  abolished  the 
"  rotten  boroughs."  (2)  It  gave  every  householder  who  paid  rent 
of  fifty  dollars  in  any  town  a  vote,  and  largely  extended  the  list 
of  county  votes  as  well.  (3)  It  granted  two  representatives  to 
Birmingham,  Leeds,  Manchester,  and  nineteen  other  large  towns, 
and  one  representative  each  to  twenty-one  other  places,  all  of 
which  had  hitherto  been  unrepresented,  besides  granting  fifteen 
additional  members  to  the  counties.  (4)  It  added  in  all  half  a 
million  of  voters  to  the  list,  and  it  helped  to  purify  the  elections 
from  the  violence  which  had  disgraced  them.  Before  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Reform  Bill  and  the  legislation  which  supplemented 
it,  the  election  of  a  member  of  Parliament  was  a  kind  of  local  reign 
of  terror.  The  smaller  towns  were  sometimes  under  the  control  of 
drunken  ruffians  for  several  weeks.  During  that  time  they  paraded 
the  streets  in  bands,  assaulting  voters  of  the  opposite  party  with 

1  "  First  calling  up  peers'  eldest  sons  ":  that  is,  in  creating  new  lords,  the  eldest 
sons  of  peers  were  to  have  the  preference.  William  R.  (AVr,  King) :  this  is  the 
customary  royal  signature. 


354  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

clubs,  kidnapping  prominent  men  and  confining  them  until  after 
the  election,  and  perpetrating  other  outrages  which  so  frightened 
peaceable  citizens  that  often  they  did  not  dare  attempt  to  vote 
at  all. 

626.  Abolition  of  Slavery ;  Factory  Reform.  —  With  the  new 
Parliament  that  came  into  power  the  names  of  Liberal  and  Con- 
servative began  to  supplant  those  of  Whig  and  Tory.  The  House 
of  Commons  now  reflected  the  v/ill  of  the  people  better  than  ever 
before,  and  further  reforms  were  accordingly  carried. 

In  1833  Buxton,  Wilberforce,  Brougham,  and  other  philanthro- 
pists, against  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the  king,  secured  the 
passage  through  Parliament  of  a  bill,  for  which  they,  with  the 
younger  Pitt,  Clarkson,  and  Zachary  Macaulay,  had  labored  in 
vain  for  half  a  century,  whereby  all  negro  slaves  in  British  colo- 
nies, who  now  numbered  800,000,  were  set  free,  and  twenty  mil- 
lions of  pounds  sterling  appropriated  to  compensate  the  owners. 
It  was  a  grand  deed  grandly  done,  and  could  America  have  fol- 
lowed the  noble  example,  she  might  thereby  have  saved  a  million 
of  human  lives  and  three  thousand  millions  of  dollars  which  were 
cast  into  the  gulf  of  civil  war,  while  the  corrupting  influence  of 
five  years  of  waste  and  discord  would  have  been  avoided. 

But  negro  slaves  were  not  the  only  slaves  in  those  days.  There 
were  white  slaves  as  well,  —  women  and  children  born  in  England, 
but  condemned  by  their  necessities  to  work  under  ground  in  the 
coal  mines,  or  exhaust  their  strength  in  the  cotton  mills.1  They 
were  driven  by  brutal  masters  who  cared  as  little  for  the  welfare 
of  those  under  them  as  the  overseer  of  a  West  India  plantation  did 
for  his  gangs  of  toilers  in  the  rice  swamps.  Parliament  at  length 
turned  its  attention  to  these  abuses,  and  greatly  alleviated  them  by 
the  passage  of  acts  forbidding  the  employment  of  women  and 


1  Children  of  six  and  seven  years  old  were  kept  at  work  for  twelve  and  thirteen 
hours  continuously  in  the  factories,  and  were  often  inhumanly  treated.  They  were 
also  employed  in  the  coal  mines  at  this  tender  age.  All  day  long  they  sat  in  abso- 
lute darkness,  opening  and  shutting  doors  for  the  passage  of  coal  cars.  If,  over- 
come with  fatigue,  they  fell  asleep,  they  were  cruelly  beaten  with  a  strap. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  355 

young  children  in  the  collieries  and  factories,  while  a  later  act 
put  an  end  to  the  barbarous  practice  of  forcing  children  to  sweep 
chimneys.  In  an  overcrowded  country  like  England,  the  lot  of 
the  poor  must  continue  to  be  exceptionally  hard,  but  there  is  no 
longer  the  indifference  toward  it  that  once  prevailed.  Poverty 
there  may  still  be  looked  upon  as  a  crime,  or  something  very  like 
it ;  but  it  is  regarded  now  as  a  crime  which  may  possibly  have 
some  extenuating  circumstances. 

627.  Inventions;  the  First  Steam  Railway;  the  Friction 
Match.  —  Ever  since  the  application  of  steam  to  machinery,  inven- 
tors had  been  discussing  plans  for  placing  the  steam  engine  on 
wheels  and  using  it  as  a  propelling  power  in  place  of  horses. 
Macadam,  a  Scotch  surveyor,  had  constructed  a  number  of  very 
superior  roads  made  of  gravel  and  broken  stone  in  the  South  of 
England,  which  soon  made  the  name  of  macadamized  turnpike  cel- 
ebrated. The  question  now  was,  Might  not  a  still  further  advance 
be  made  by  employing  steam  to  draw  cars  on  these  roads,  or 
better  still,  on  iron  rails?  George  Stephenson  had  long  been 
experimenting  in  that  direction,  and  at  length  certain  capitalists 
whom  he  had  converted  to  his  views  succeeded  in  getting  an  act 
of  Parliament  for  constructing  a  railway  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  a  distance  of  about  thirty  miles.  When  the  road  was 
completed  by  Stephenson,  he  had  great  difficulty  in  getting  per- 
mission to  use  an  engine  instead  of  horse  power  on  it.  Finally 
his  new  locomotive,  "The  Rocket,"  —  which  first  introduced  the 
tubular  boiler,  and  employed  the  exhaust  or  escaping  steam  to 
increase  the  draught  of  the  fire,  —  was  tried  with  entire  success. 
The  road  was  formally  opened  in  the  autumn  of  1830,  and  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  then  prime  minister,  was  one  of  the  few  pas- 
sengers who  ventured  on  the  trial  trip.1  The  growth  of  this  new 
mode  of  transportation  was  so  rapid  that  in  five  years  from  that 

1  "  The  Rocket,"  together  with  Watt's  first  steam  pumping  engine,  are  both  pre- 
served in  the  Patent  Office  Museum,  South  Kensington,  London. 

The  tubular  boiler  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  boiler  traversed  by  a  number  ii 
tubes  communicating  with  the  smoke-pipe  ;  as  the  heat  passes  through  these,  steam 


356  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

time  London  and  the  principal  seaports  were  connected  with  the 
great  manufacturing  towns,  while  steam  navigation  had  also  nearly 
doubled  its  vessels  and  its  tonnage.  Ten  years  later  still,  the 
whole  country  became  involved  in  a  speculative  craze  for  building 
railroads.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  pounds  were  invested ;  for  a 
time  Hudson,  the  "Railway  King,"  as  he  was  called,  ruled  supreme, 
and  members  of  Parliament  did  homage  to  the  man  whose  schemes 
promised  to  cover  the  whole  island  with  a  network  of  iron  roads, 
every  one  of  which  was  expected  to  make  its  stockholders  rich. 
Eventually  these  projects  ended  in  a  panic,  second  only  to  that  of 
the  South  Sea  Bubble,  and  thousands  found  that  steam  could 
destroy  fortunes  even  faster  than  it  made  them. 

Toward  the  close  of  William's  reign,  between  the  years  1829 
and  1834,  a  humble  invention  was  perfected  of  which  little  was 
said  at  the  time,  but  which  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  every  one.  Up  to  this  date  the  two 
most  important  of  all  civilizing  agents  —  fire  and  light  —  could 
only  be  produced  with  much  difficulty  and  at  considerable  ex- 
pense. Various  devices  had  been  contrived  to  obtain  them,  but 
the  common  method  continued  to  be  the  primitive  one  of  striking 
a  bit  of  flint  and  steel  sharply  together  until  a  falling  spark  ignited 
a  piece  of  tinder  or  half-burnt  rag,  which,  when  it  caught,  had, 
with  no  little  expense  of  breath,  to  be  blown  into  a  flame.  The 
progress  of  chemistry  suggested  the  use  of  phosphorus,  and  after 
years  of  experiments  the  friction  match  was  invented  by  an  Eng- 
lish apothecary,  who  thus  gave  to  the  world  what  is  now  the  com- 
monest, and  perhaps  at  the  same  time  the  most  useful  domestic 
article  in  existence. 

628.  Summary. — William  IV. 's  short  reign  of  seven  years  is 
marked  (i)  by  the  great  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  which  took  Parlia- 

is  thereby  generated  much  more  rapidly  than  it  could  otherwise  be.  The  steam 
after  it  has  done  its  work  in  the  cylinders  escapes  into  the  smoke-pipe  with  great 
force,  and  of  course  increases  the  draught.  Without  these  two  improvements  oi 
Stephenson's  the  locomotive  would  never  have  attained  a  greater  speed  than  five  01 
six  miles  an  hour. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  357 

ment  out  of  the  hands  of  a  moneyed  clique  and  put  it  under  the 
control  of  the  people  ;  (2)  by  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British 
colonies,  and  factory  reform  ;  (3)  by  the  introduction  of  the  friction 
match,  and  by  the  building  of  the  first  successful  line  of  railway. 

VICTORIA  1837.— 

629.  The  Queen's  Descent ;   Stability  of  the  Government.  — 

As  William  IV.  left  no  child  to  inherit  the  crown,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  niece,1  the  Princess  Victoria,  daughter  of  his  brother  Edward, 
Duke  of  Kent.  In  her  lineage  the  queen  represents  nearly  the 
whole  past  sovereignty  of  the  land  over  which  she  governs.2  The 
blood  of  both  Cerdic,  the  first  Saxon  king,  and  of  William  the 
Conqueror,3  flows  in  her  veins,  —  a  fact  which  strikingly  illustrates 
the  vitality  of  the  hereditary  and  conservative  principles  in  the 
history  of  the  English  crown. 

We  see  the  full  force  of  this  when  we  pause  to  survey  the  ground 
we  have  passed  over.  Since  the  coming  of  the  English  to  Britain 
a  succession  of  important  changes  has  taken  place. 

In  1066  the  Normans  crossed  the  Channel,  invaded  the  island, 
conquered  its  inhabitants,  and  seized  the  throne.  Five  centuries 
later  the  religion  of  Rome  was  supplanted  by  the  Protestant  faith 
of  Luther. 

A  hundred  years  after  that  event,  civil  war  burst  forth,  the  king 
was  deposed  and  beheaded,  and  a  republic  established.  A  few 
years  subsequently  the  monarchy  was  restored,  only  to  be  followed 
by  a  revolution,  which  changed  the  order  of  succession,  drove  one 
line  of  sovereigns  from  the  land,  and  called  in  another  from  Ger- 
many to  take  their  place.  Meanwhile  new  political  parties  rose  to 
power,  the  Reform  Bill  passed,  and  Parliament  came  to  represent 
more  perfectly  than  ever  the  will  of  the  whole  people  ;  yet  after  all 
these  events,  at  the  end  of  more  than  ten  centuries  from  the  date 

1  See  table,  Paragraph  No.  581. 

2  The  only  exceptions  are  the  Danish  sovereigns  and  Harold  II. 
8  See  Genealogical  Table,  page  402. 


3 $8  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

when  Egbert  first  assumed  the  crown,  we  find  England  governed 
by  a  descendant  of  her  earliest  rulers  ! 

630.  A  New  Order  of  Things ;  the  House  of  Commons  now 
Supreme.  —  The  new  queen  was  but  little  over  eighteen  when 
called  to  the  throne.  At  her  accession  a  new  order  of  things 
began.  The  Georges,  with  William  IV.,  had  insisted  on  dis- 
missing their  ministers,  or  chief  political  advisers,  when  they 
pleased,  without  condescending  to  give  Parliament  any  reason  for 
the  change.  That  system,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  last  ves- 
tige of  "personal  government,"  l  that  is,  of  the  power  of  the  crown 
to  act  without  the  advice  of  the  nation,  died  with  the  late  king. 

With  the  coronation  of  Victoria  the  principle  was  established 
that  henceforth  the  sovereign  of  the  British  Empire  cannot  remove 
the  prime  minister  or  his  cabinet  without  the  consent  of  the  House 
of  Commons  elected  by  and  directly  representing  the  great  body  of 
the  people ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  would  the  sovereign  now  ven- 
ture to  retain  a  ministry  which  the  Commons  refused  to  support.2 

Custom,  too,  has  decided  that  the  queen  must  give  her  sanction 
to  any  bill  which  Parliament  approves  and  desires  to  make  law  ; 3 
so  that  if  the  two  Houses  should  agree  to  draw  up  and  send  her 
own  death  warrant  to  the  queen,  she  would  be  obliged  to  sign  it, 
or  abdicate.4 

1  See  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times. 

2  So  carefully  does  the  queen  guard  herself  against  any  political  influence  adverse 
to'  that  of  the  ministry  (and  hence  of  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons) ,  that 
the  Mistress  of  the  Robes,  or  head  of  her  majesty's  household,  now  changes  with 
the  ministry,  and  it  is  furthermore  understood  that  any  ladies  under  her  whose  pres- 
ence might  be  politically  inconvenient  to  the  premier  shall  retire  "  of  their  own  accord." 
In  other  words,  the  in-coming  ministry  have  the  right  to  remodel  the  queen's  house- 
hold—  or  any  other  body  of  offices  —  in  whatever  degree  they  think  requisite,  and 
the  late  Prince  Albert  could  not  even  appoint  his  own  private  secretary,  but  much  to 
his  chagrin  had  to  accept  one  appointed  for  him  by  the  prime  minister.    See  May's 
Constitutional  History  of  England,  and  Martin's  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,  vol.  5. 

3  Queen  Anne  was  the  last  sovereign  who  vetoed  a  bill.    That  was  in  1707.    Dur- 
ing the  hundred  and  eighty  years  which  have  followed  no  English  sovereign  has 
ventured  to  repeat  the  experiment. 

4  See  Bagehot,  The  English  Constitution. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  359 

Thus  the  queen's  real  position  to-day  is  that  of  a  person  who 
has  much  indirect  influence  and  but  little  direct  power  —  far  less 
in  fact  than  that  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who  can 
exercise  the  right  of  vetoing  a  bill,  thus  preventing  a  majority  of 
Congress  from  enacting  a  law ; l  and  may  remove  the  lower  class 
of  office-holders  at  pleasure. 

631.  Sketch  of  the  Peerage.  —  A  change  equally  great  has 
taken  place  with  respect  to  the  peers.2  As  that  body  has  played 
a  most  important  part  in  the  government  of  England  and  still 
retains  considerable  influence,  it  may  be  well  to  consider  their 
history  and  present  condition.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
peerage  originated  with  the  Norman  conquest.  William  rewarded 
the  barons,  or  chief  men,  who  fought  under  him  at  Hastings,8  with 
grants  of  immense  estates,  which  were  given  on  two  conditions, 
one  of  military  service  at  the  call  of  the  sovereign,4  the  other  their 
attendance  at  the  royal  council,5  an  advisory  and  legislative  body, 
which  contained  the  germ  of  the  present  parliamentary  system.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Conqueror  made  the  possession  of  landed 
property  directly  dependent  on  the  discharge  of  public  duties.  So 
that  if  on  the  one  hand  the  conquest  carried  out  the  principle 

"  That  they  should  take  who  have  the  power, 
And  they  should  keep  who  can,"  6 

on  the  other,  it  insisted  on  the  higher  principle  that  in  return  for 
such  taking  and  keeping  the  victors  should  bind  themselves  by  oath 
both  to  defend  and  to  govern  the  state. 


1  Congress  may,  however,  pass  a  law  over  the  President's  veto,  providing  they 
can  get  a  two-thirds  vote  in  its  favor. 

2  Peers  (from  the  Latin  pares,  equals).    The  word  first  occurs  in  an  act  of  Par- 
liament, 1322,  —  "  Pares  et  proceres  regni  Angliae  spirituales  et  temporales." 

8  The  names  of  the  great  barons  have  been  preserved  in  Domesday  Book 
(see  Paragraph  No.  169) ,  in  the  roll  of  Battle  Abbey  (though  that  was  tampered  with 
by  the  monks),  and  on  the  wall  of  the  twelfth  century  church  at  Dives,  Nor- 
mandy, where  the  Conqueror  built  his  ships. 

4  See  Paragraph  No.  200. 

6  See  Paragraph  No.  200. 

*  Wordsworth,  Rob  Rov's  Grave. 


360  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

In  later  reigns  the  king  summoned  other  influential  men  to 
attend  Parliament,  who,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  original 
barons  by  land-tenure,  were  called  "  barons  by  writ "  ; J  and  sub- 
sequently it  became  customary  for  the  sovereign  to  create  barons 
by  letters-patent,  as  is  the  method  at  present.2 

The  original  baronage  continued  predominant  until  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses 3  so  nearly  destroyed  the  ancient  nobility,  that,  as  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  says,  "  A  Norman  baron  was  almost  as  rare  a  being 
in  England  then  as  a  wolf  is  now."  4  With  the  coming  in  of  the 
Tudors  a  new  nobility  was  created.5  Even  this  has  become  in 
great  measure  extinct,  and  of  those  who  now  sit  in  the  House  of 
Lords  perhaps  not  more  than  a  fourth  can  trace  their  titles  further 
back  than  the  Georges,  who  created  great  numbers  of  peers  in 
return  for  political  services  either  rendered  or  expected. 

Politically  speaking,  the  nobility  of  England,  unlike  the  old  nobil- 
ity of  France,  is  as  a  rule  strictly  confined  to  the  male  head  of  the 
family.  None  of  the  children  of  the  most  powerful  duke  or  lord 
have  during  his  life  any  civil  or  legal  rights  or  privileges  above  that 
of  the  poorest  and  obscurest  peasant  in  Great  Britain.6  They  are 
simply  commoners.  But  by  courtesy,  the  eldest  son  of  a  noble- 
man usually  receives  a  part  of  his  father's  title,  and  at  his  death 
he  enters  into  possession  of  his  estate7  and  rank,  and  takes  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  having  in  many  cases  been  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons  by  election  for  a  number  of  years 
before.  The  younger  sons  inherit  neither  hereditary  title,  politi- 
cal power,  nor  landed  property,  but  quite  generally  obtain  offices 
in  the  civil  service,  or  positions  in  the  army  or  the  church. 

i  See  Paragraph  No.  315.     2  See  Paragraph  No.  315.    8  See  Paragraph  No.  368. 
4  Beaconsfield's  Coningsby.  6  gee  Paragraph  No.  404. 

6  Even  the  younger  children  of  the  sovereign  are  no  exception  to  this  rule.    The 
only  one  born  with  a  title  is  the  eldest,  who  is  Duke  of  Cornwall  by  birth,  and  is 
created  Prince  of  Wales.    The  others  are  simply  commoners.    See  Freeman's 
Growth  of  the  English  Constitution. 

7  So  strictly  is  property  entailed,  that  there  are  proprietors  of  large  estates,  who 
cannot  so  much  as  cut  down  a  tree  without  permission  of  the  heir.     Badeau's 
English  Aristocracy. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.       361 

The  whole  number  of  peers  is,  in  round  numbers,  about  five 
hundred.1  They  may  be  said  to  own  most  of  the  land  of  England. 
Their  average  incomes  are  estimated  at  £2 2,000  ($110,000),  or  an 
aggregate  of  ^11,000,000  ($55,000,000),  an  amount  certainly  not 
greater,  if  indeed  it  equals,  the  combined  incomes  of  half  a  dozen 
leading  American  capitalists. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  about  the  peerage  in  modern 
times  is  the  fact  that  its  ranks  have  been  constantly  recruited  from 
the  people  ;  and  just  as  any  boy  in  America  feels  himself  a  possible 
senator  or  president,  so  any  one  born  or  naturalized  in  England  may 
like  Pitt,  Disraeli,  Churchill,  Nelson,  Wellesley,  Brougham,  Tenny- 
son, Macaulay,  or  the  American  Lord  Lyndhurst,2  hope  to  win 
and  wear  a  coronet ;  for  brains  and  character  go  to  the  front  in 
England  just  as  surely  as  they  do  elsewhere. 

In  their  legislative  action  the  peers  are,  with  very  rare  exceptions, 
ultra  conservative.  They  have  seldom  granted  their  assent  to  any 
liberal  measure  except  from  pressure  of  the  most  unmistakable 
kind.  It  is  for  their  interest  to  keep  things  as  they  are,  and  hence 
they  fight  against  every  tendency  to  give  the  people  a  larger  meas- 
ure of  power.  They  opposed  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  under 
Charles  II.,  the  Great  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  the  Education  Bill  of 
1834,  the  admission  of  the  Jews  to  Parliament,  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws,  and  the  later  extensions  of  the  franchise ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  was  their  influence  which  compelled  John  to  sign 
Magna  Carta ;  it  was  one  of  their  number  —  Simon  de  Montfort, 
Earl  of  Leicester — who  called  the  House  of  Commons  into  being ; 
and  it  was  the  lords  as  leaders  who  inaugurated  the  Revolution  of 
1688,  and  established  constitutional  sovereignty  under  William 
and  Mary  in  the  place  of  the  arbitrary  and  despotic  self-will  of 
James  II. 

It  is  the  fashion  with  impatient  radicals  to  style  the  Lords  "titled 
obstructionists,"  privileged  to  block  the  way  to  all  improvements ; 


1  About  four  hundred  and  seventy-five  temporal  peers  and  twenty-five  spiritual 
peers  (archbishops  and  bishops). 

-  J.  S.  Copley,  son  of  the  famous  artist,  (Lord  Lyndhurst,)  born  in  Boston,  1772. 


362  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

but  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  have  often  done  the  country  good 
service  by  checking  hurried  and  ill-considered  legislation ;  and 
though  the  time  may  perhaps  be  not  very  far  distant  when  a 
hereditary  House  of  Lords  will  cease  to  exist,  yet  there  will  always 
be  need  in  England,  as  in  every  other  civilized  country,  of  an  upper 
legislative  house,  composed  of  men  whose  motto  is  to  "make 
haste  slowly." 

Meanwhile,  though  England  continues  to  lay  strong  emphasis  on 
nobility  of  rank  and  blood,  yet  she  is  never  forgetful  of  the  honor 
due  to  nobility  of  character.  Perhaps  it  is  the  consciousness  of 
this  fact  which  in  recent  times  has  led  men  like  Mr.  Gladstone  to 
decline  a  title,  content,  as  not  a  few  of  the  descendants  of  the  old 
Saxon  families  are,  with  the  influence  won  by  an  unsullied  name 
and  a  long  and  illustrious  career.  Eight  hundred  years  ago  the 
House  of  Lords  was  the  only  legislative  and  executive  body  in  the 
country ;  now,  nearly  all  the  business  is  done  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  not  a  penny  of  money  can  be  voted  for  any  pur- 
pose whatever  except  the  Commons  first  propose  it.  Thus  taxa- 
tion, the  most  important  of  all  measures,  has  passed  from  the  peers 
to  the  direct  representatives  of  the  people.1 

632.  The  Queen's  Marriage.  — In  1840  the  queen,  then  in  her 
twenty-first  year,  married  her  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe  Coburg 

1  Other  measures  may  originate  in  either  House,  but  practically  nearly  all  begin 
with  the  Commons,  though  they  require  the  assent  of  the  Lords  to  become  law. 
This,  however,  is  now  never  refused  for  any  great  length  of  time  in  any  important 
matter  in  which  the  people  are  interested. 

The  following  points  are  also  of  interest:  — 

1.  All  laws  relating  to  the  rights  of  peers  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Estate  and  naturalization  laws  also  begin  in  the  Lords. 

2.  A  law  directly  affecting  the  House  of  Commons  originates  in  that  House. 

3.  There  is  one  bill  only  which  the  crown  has  the  right  of  initiating  —  an  Act  of 
General  Pardon. 

When  a  bill  has  passed  both  Houses,  it  receives  the  royal  assent  in  the  following 
words  (a  form  which  probably  originated  with  the  Norman  kings)  :  "  La  reigne  le 
veult"  ("  The  queen  wills  it  so  ") ;  when,  in  the  past,  the  royal  assent  was  refused, 
the  denial  was  expressed  thus :  "  La  reigne  s'avisera "  ("  The  queen  will  con- 
sider it"). 

The  House  of  Lords  is  the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  in  the  kingdom ;  and  it  is 
the  tribunal  by  which  persons  impeached  by  the  House  of  Commons  are  tried. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  363 

Gotha,  a  duchy  of  Central  Germany.1  The  prince  was  about  her 
own  age,  of  fine  personal  appearance,  and  had  just  graduated  from 
one  of  the  German  universities.  He  was  particularly  interested  in 
art  and  education',  and  throughout  his  life  used  his  influence  to 
raise  the  standard  of  both. 

633.  Sir  Rowland  Hill's  Postal  Reforms.  — The  same  year  Sir 
Rowland  Hill  introduced  a  uniform  system  of  cheap  postage,  by 
which  rates  were  reduced  to  a  penny  for  a  single  letter  to  any 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom.3     Since  then  cheap  telegrams  and 
the  transportation  of  parcels  by  mail  (a  kind  of  government  express 
known  as  parcel-post)  have  followed,  —  all,  improvements  of  im- 
mense practical  benefit. 

634.  Rise  of  the  Chartists. — The  feeling  attending  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  had  passed  away;   but  now  a 

i  Income  of  the  Queen  and  Royal  Family.  —  Up  to  the  accession  of 
George  III.  the  royal  income  was  derived  from  two  sources:  i.  Taxation;  2.  The 
rents  and  profits  of  the  crown  lands.  George  III.  surrendered  his  right  to  these 
lands  in  return  for  a  fixed  income  granted  by  Parliament.  Since  then,  every  sov- 
ereign has  done  the  same.  The  queen's  income  is  .£385,000  ($1,863,400,  calling  the 
pound  $4.84).  The  royal  family  receive  in  addition,  ,£156,000  ($755,040),  or  a  total 
of  ,£541,000  ($2,618,440). 

The  English  sovereign  has  at  present  the  following  powers,  all  of  which  are 
practically  vested  in  the  ministry  :  — 

1.  The  power  of  summoning,  proroguing  (suspending  the  action  of),  and  dissolv- 
ing Parliament  at  pleasure. 

2.  Of  refusing  assent  to  any  bill  (obsolete). 

3.  Of  making  peace,  declaring  war,  and  making  treaties. 

4.  Of  pardoning  convicted  offenders;  of  coining  money. 

5.  Of  creating  peers,  appointing  archbishops  and  bishops,  and  in  general  granting 
all  titles  of  rank  and  honor. 

6.  Of  the  supreme  command  of  the  army  and  navy.    The  appointment  to  all 
orifices  in  the  gift  of  the  government,  which  was  formerly  in  the  hands  of  the  sover- 
eign, is  now  under  the  control  of  the  prime  minister,  acting  in  connection  with  the 
civil-service  and  other  commissions. 

8  The  postage  even  within  the  limits  of  England  proper  had  been  as  high  as  a 
shilling  (twenty-five  cents).  A  poor  woman,  who  wished  to  hear  regularly  from  her 
brother,  but  who  could  not  afford  to  pay  this  sum,  hit  on  an  ingenious  plan  for  doing 
so  without  expense  to  either  side.  Sir  Rowland  Hill  happened  to  learn  of  it,  and 
was  so  struck  by  the  circumstance  that  he  at  once  set  to  work  to  devise  a  reform 
which  should  make  it  possible  for  the  poorest  to  send  and  receive  letters.  See  Mc- 
Carthy's Epoch  of  Reform,  1830-1850. 


364  LEADING    FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

popular  agitation  began,  which  produced  even  greater  excitement 
Although  the  new  law  had  equalized  parliamentary  representation 
and  had  enlarged  the  franchise  to  a  very  considerable  degree,  yet 
the  great  body  of  workingmen  were  still  unable  to  vote.  A  radi- 
cal party  now  arose,  which  undertook  to  secure  further  measures 
of  reform.  They  embodied  their  measures  in  a  document  called 
the  "People's  Charter,"  which  demanded,  (i)  Universal  male  suf- 
frage ;  (2)  That  the  voting  at  elections  should  be  by  ballot;  (3) 
Annual  Parliaments ;  (4)  The  payment  of  members  of  Parliament ; 
(5)  The  abolition  of  the  property  qualification  for  parliamentary 
candidates ; 1  (6)  The  division  of  the  whole  country  into  equal 
electoral  districts.  The  Chartists,  as  the  advocates  of  these  meas- 
ures called  themselves,  held  public  meetings,  organized  clubs,  and 
published  newspapers  to  disseminate  their  principles ;  but  for  many 
years  little  visible  progress  was  made  by  them.  In  1848  the 
French  revolution  which  dethroned  King  Louis  Philippe  imparted 
fresh  impetus  to  the  Chartist  movement.  The  leader  of  it  was 
Feargus  O'Connor.  He  now  formed  the  plan  of  sending  a  mon- 
ster petition  to  Parliament,  containing,  it  was  claimed,  nearly  five 
million  signatures,  praying  for  the  passage  of  the  charter.  It 
was  furthermore  arranged  that  a  procession  of  a  million  or  more 
of  signers  should  act  as  an  escort  to  the  document,  which  made  a 
wagon-load  in  itself.  The  government  became  alarmed  at  the 
threatened  demonstration,  and  forbade  it,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  an  attempt  to  coerce  legislation.  In  order  that  peace  might 
be  preserved  in  London,  250,000  special  policemen  were  sworn  in, 
among  whom,  it  is  said,  was  Louis  Napoleon,  then  a  refugee  in 
England. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  took  command  of  a  large  body  of 


l  Property  Qualification :  In  1711  an  act  was  passed  requiring  candidates  for 
election  to  the  House  of  Commons  to  have  an  income  of  not  less  than  three  hundred 
pounds  derived  from  landed  property.  The  object  of  this  law  was  to  secure  members 
who  would  be  comparatively  free  from  the  temptation  of  receiving  bribes  from  the 
crown,  and  also  to  keep  the  landed  proprietors  in  power  to  the  exclusion  of  rich 
merchants.  This  law  was  repealed  in  1858. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  365 

troops  held  in  reserve  to  defend  the  city ;  and  the  Bank  of  England, 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the  British  Museum,  and  other  public 
buildings  were  made  ready  to  withstand  a  siege. 

It  was  now  the  Chartists'  turn  to  be  frightened.  When  they 
assembled  on  Kennington  Common  they  numbered  less  than 
30,000 ;  the  procession  of  a  million  which  was  to  march  across 
Westminster  bridge  dwindled  to  half  a  dozen  ;  and  the  huge  petition 
when  unrolled  and  examined  was  found  to  contain  only  about  a  third 
of  the  boasted  number  of  names.  Further  examination  caused 
still  greater  shrinkage,  for  it  was  discovered  that  many  of  the  signa- 
tures were  spurious,  having  been  put  down  in  jest,  or  copied  from 
grave-stones  and  old  London  directories.  With  that  discovery  the 
whole  movement  collapsed,  and  the  House  of  Commons  rang  with 
"  inextinguishable  laughter  "  over  the  national  scare. 

Still  the  demands  of  the  Chartists  had  a  solid  foundation  of 
good  sense,  which  not  even  the  blustering  braggadocio  of  the 
leaders  of  the  movement  could  wholly  destroy.  The  reforms 
asked  for  were  needed,  and  since  then  they  have  been  in  great 
part  accomplished  by  the  steady,  quiet  influence  of  reason  and 
of  time. 

The  printed  or  written  ballot  has  been  substituted  for  the  old 
method  of  electing  candidates  by  a  show  of  hands  or  by  shouting 
yes  or  no  —  a  method  by  which  it  was  easy  to  make  blunders,  and 
equally  easy  to  commit  frauds.  The  property  qualification  has 
been  abolished,  so  that  the  poorest  day-laborer  may  now  run  for 
Parliament.  The  right  of  "  manhood  suffrage  "  has  been,  as  we 
shall  see,  greatly  extended,  and  before  the  century  closes,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  every  man  in  England  will  have  a  voice  in  the  elec- 
tions. 

635.  The  Corn  Laws.  —  At  the  accession  of  the  queen  pro- 
tective duties  or  taxes  existed  in  Great  Britain  on  all  imported 
breadstuffs  and  on  many  manufactured  articles.  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
who  became  prime  minister  in  1841,  favored  a  reduction  in  the 
last  class  of  duties,  but  believed  it  necessary  to  maintain  the 


366  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

former  in  order  to  keep  up  the  price  of  grain  and  thus  encourage 
the  English  farmers.  The  result  of  this  mistaken  policy  was  great 
distress  among  workingmen,  who  could  not  afford  out  of  their  mis- 
erable wages  to  pay  high  prices  for  bread.  A  number  of  philan- 
thropists led  by  Richard  Cobden  and  John  Bright  organized  an 
Anti-Corn  Law  League1  to  obtain  the  repeal  of  the  grain  duties. 

On  the  other  hand,  Ebenezer  Elliott,  the  "Corn  Law  Rhymer," 
as  he  was  popularly  called,  gave  voice  to  the  sufferings  of  the  poor 
in  rude  but  vigorous  verse,  which  appealed  to  the  excited  feelings 
of  thousands  in  such  words  as  these  :  — 

"  England  !  what  for  mine  and  me, 
What  hath  bread- tax  done  for  thee? 

*  *  *  * 

Cursed  thy  harvests,  cursed  thy  land, 
Hunger-stung  thy  skill'd  right  hand." 

When,  however,  session  after  session  of  Parliament  passed  and 
nothing  was  done  for  the  relief  of  the  perishing  multitudes,  many 
were  in  despair,  and  at  meetings  held  to  discuss  measures,  crowds 
joined  in  singing  Elliott's  new  national  anthem  :  — 

"  When  wilt  Thou  save  the  people? 

O  God  of  mercy !  when? 
Not  kings  and  lords,  but  nations ! 

Not  thrones  and  crowns,  but  men ! 
Flowers  of  thy  heart,  O  God,  are  they ! 
Let  them  not  pass,  like  weeds,  away ! 
Their  heritage  a  sunless  day ! 

God  save  the  people !  " 

Still  the  government  was  not  convinced ;  the  corn  laws  were 
enforced,  and  the  situation  grew  daily  more  desperate  and  more 
threatening. 

636.  The  Irish  Famine;  Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws;  Free 
Trade. — At  last  the  Irish  famine  opened  the  premier's  eyes. 

1  Corn  is  the  name,  given  in  England  to  wheat  or  other  grain  used  for  food, 
Indian  corn,  called  maize,  is  seldom  eaten. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  367 

When  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  introduced  the 
cheap  but  precarious  potato  into  Ireland,  his  motive  was  one  of 
pure  good  will.  He  could  not  foresee  that  it  would  in  time 
become  in  that  country  an  almost  universal  food,  that  through  its 
very  abundance  the  population  would  rapidly  increase,  and  that 
then  by  the  sudden  failure  of  the  crop  terrible  destitution  would 
ensue.  Such  was  the  case  in  the  summer  of  1845.  It  is  said  by 
eye-witnesses  that  in  a  single  night  the  entire  potato  crop  was 
destroyed  by  blight,  and  that  the  healthy  plants  were  transformed 
into  a  mass  of  putrefying  vegetation.  Thus  at  one  fell  stroke  the 
food  of  nearly  a  whole  nation  was  cut  off.1 

In  the  years  that  followed,  the  famine  became  appalling.  The 
starving  peasants  left  their  miserable  huts  and  streamed  into  the 
towns  for  relief,  only  to  die  of  hunger  in  the  streets. 

Parliament  responded  nobly  to  the  piteous  calls  for  help, 
and  voted  in  all  no  less  than  $50,000,000  to  relieve  the  dis- 
tress.2 Subscriptions  were  also  taken  up  in  London  and  the  chief 
towns  by  which  large  sums  were  obtained,  and  America  contrib- 
uted ship-loads  of  provisions  and  a  good  deal  of  money ;  but  th^ 
misery  was  so  great  that  even  these  measures  failed  to  accomplish 
what  was  hoped,  and  when  the  famine  was  over,  and  its  results  came 
to  be  estimated,  it  was  found  that  Ireland  had  lost  about  2,000,000 
(or  one-fourth)  of  her  population.3  This  was  the  combined  effect 
of  starvation,  of  the  various  diseases  that  followed  in  its  path,  and 
of  emigration.4  In  the  face  of  such  appalling  facts,  and  of  the  bad 
harvests  and  distress  in  England,  the  prime  minister  could  hold 
out  no  longer,  and  by  a  gradual  process,  extending  from  1846 
to  1849,  the  obnoxious  corn  laws  were  gradually  repealed  with  the 
exception  of  a  trifling  duty,  which  was  finally  removed  in  1869. 


1  O'Connor,  The  Parnell  Movement  (The  Famine). 

2  Molesworth's  History  of  England  from  1830,  Vol.  II. 

8  The  actual  number  of  deaths  from  starvation,  or  fever  caused  by  insufficient 
food,  was  estimated  at  from  200,000  to  300,000.  See  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
"  Ireland." 

*  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  vol.  i. 


368  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

The  beginning  once  made,  free  trade  in  nearly  everything,  except 
wine,  spirits,  and  tobacco,  followed.  They  were,  and  still  are,  sub- 
ject to  a  heavy  duty,  perhaps  because  the  government  believes,  as 
Napoleon  did,  that  the  vices  have  broad  backs  and  can  comforta- 
bly carry  the  heaviest  taxes.  But,  by  a  singular  contrast,  while 
nearly  all  goods  and  products  now  enter  England  free,  yet  Aus- 
tralia and  several  other  colonies  continue  to  impose  duties  on 
imports  from  the  mother  country. 

637.  The  World's  Fair ;  Repeal  of  the  Window  and  the  News- 
paper Tax;  the  Atlantic  Cable.  —  In  1851  the  great  industrial 
exhibition  known  as  the  "  World's  Fair "  was  opened  in  Hyde 
Park,  London.  The  original  plan  of  it  was  conceived  by  Prince 
Albert ;  and  it  proved  to  be  not  only  a  complete  success  in  itself, 
but  it  led  to  many  similar  fairs  on  the  part  of  different  nations. 
For  the  first  time  in  history,  the  products  and  inventions  of  all 
countries  on  the  globe  were  brought  together  under  one  roof,  in  a 
gigantic  structure  of  glass  and  iron  called  the  "  Crystal  Palace," 
which  is  still  in  use  for  exhibition  purposes  at  Sydenham,  a  suburb 
of  London. 

The  same  year,  the  barbarous  tax  on  light  and  air,  known  as 
the  "  Window  Tax,"  was  repealed ;  and  from  that  date  the  Eng- 
lishman, whether  in  London  or  out,  might  enjoy  his  sunshine,  — 
when  he  could  get  it,  —  without  having  to  pay  for  every  beam: 
a  luxury,  which  only  the  rich  could  afford.  A  little  later,  a  stamp 
tax  on  newspapers,  which  had  been  devised  in  Queen  Anne's  time 
in  the  avowed  hope  of  crushing  them  out,  was  repealed ;  and  the 
result  was  that  henceforth  the  workingman,  as  he  sat  by  his  fire- 
side, could  inform  himself  of  what  the  world  was  doing  and  think- 
ing, —  two  things  of  which  he  had  before  known  almost  nothing, 
and  cared,  perhaps,  even  less. 

To  get  this  news  of  the  world's  life  more  speedily,  the  first 
Atlantic  cable,  connecting  England  with  America,  was  laid  in 
1858.  Since  then,  a  large  part  of  the  globe  has  been  joined  in 
like  manner ;  and  all  the  great  cities  of  every  civilized  land  are 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  369 

practically  one  in  their  knowledge  of  events.  So  many  improve- 
ments have  also  been  made  in  the  use  of  electricity,  not  only  for 
the  transmission  of  intelligence,  but  as  an  illuminator,  and  more 
recently  still  as  a  motive  power,  that  it  now  seems  probable  that 
"the  age  of  steam  "  is  soon  to  be  superseded  by  the  higher  "age 
of  electricity." 

638.  The  Opium  War;  the  War  in  the  Crimea;  the  Rebel- 
lion in  India.  —  Up  to  1854  no  wars  occurred  in  this  reign 
worthy  of  mention,  with  the  exception  of  that  with  China  in 
1839.  At  that  time  the  Chinese  emperor,  either  from  a  desire  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  consumption  of  opium  in  his  dominions,  or  be- 
cause he  wished  to  encourage  the  home  production  of  the  drug,1 
prohibited  its  importation.  As  the  English  in  India  were  largely 
engaged  in  the  production  of  opium  for  the  Chinese  market, — 
the  people  of  that  country  smoking  it  instead  of  tobacco,  —  the 
British  government  insisted  that  the  emperor  should  not  interfere 
with  so  lucrative  a  trade.  War  ensued.  The  Chinese,  being  un- 
able to  contend  against  English  gunboats,  were  soon  forced  to 
withdraw  their  prohibition  of  the  foreign  opium  traffic ;  and  the 
English  government,  with  the  planters  of  India,  reaped  a  golden 
reward  of  many  millions  for  their  deliberate  violation  of  the  rights 
of  a  heathen  and  half-civilized  people.  Later  wars  with  China 
have  had  the  important  result  of  opening  a  number  of  the  chief 
ports  to  the  trade  of  the  world. 

In  1853  Turkey  declared  war  against  Russia.  The  latter 
power  had  insisted  on  protecting  all  Christians  in  the  Turkish 
dominions  against  the  oppression  of  the  sultan.  England  and 
France  considered  the  czar's  championship  of  the  Christians  as  a 
mere  pretext  for  occupying  Turkish  territory.  To  prevent  this 

1  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  opium  consumed  in  China  is  now  raised,  either 
with  or  without  the  full  consent  of  the  government,  by  the  Chinese  themselves. 
The  probability  is  that  before  many  years  the  home  production  will  supply  the 
entire  demand,  and  thus  exclude  importations  of  the  drug  from  India.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  about  one  hundred  millions  of  the  population  of  China  are  addicted  to 
opium-smoking. 


3/O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

aggression  they  formed  an  alliance  with  the  sultan,  which  resulted 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  and  ended  by  the  taking  of  Sebastopol 
by  the  allied  forces.  Russia  was  obliged  to  retract  her  demands ; 
and  peace  was  declared  in  the  spring  of  1856. 

The  following  year  was  memorable  for  the  outbreak  of  the 
Sepoy  rebellion  in  India.  The  real  cause  of  the  revolt  was  prob- 
ably a  long- smothered  feeling  of  resentment  on  the  part  of  the 
Sepoy,  or  native,  troops  against  English  rule,  —  a  feeling  that 
dates  back  to  the  extortion  and  misgovernment  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings. The  immediate  cause  of  the  uprising  was  the  introduction 
of  an  improved  rifle  using  a  greased  cartridge,  which  had  to  be 
bitten  off  before  being  rammed  down.  To  the  Hindoo  the  fat 
of  cattle  or  swine  is  an  abomination ;  and  his  religion  forbids  his 
tasting  it.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  government  to  enforce 
the  use  of  the  new  cartridge  brought  on  a  general  mutiny.  Dur- 
ing the  revolt,  the  native  troops  perpetrated  the  most  horrible 
atrocities  on  the  English  women  and  children  who  fell  into  their 
hands.  When  the  insurrection  was  finally  quelled  under  Have- 
lock  and  Campbell,  the  English  soldiers  retaliated  by  binding 
numbers  of  prisoners  to  the  mouths  of  cannon  and  blowing  them 
to  shreds.  At  the  close  of  the  rebellion,  the  government  of  India 
was  wholly  transferred  to  the  crown;  and  in  1876  the  queen  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Empress  of  India. 

639.  Death  of  Prince  Albert ;  the  American  Civil  War.  — 
Late  in  1861  the  prince  consort  died  suddenly.  In  him  the 
nation  lost  an  earnest  promoter  of  social,  educational,  and  indus- 
trial reforms ;  and  the  United  States,  a  true  and  judicious  friend, 
who  at  a  most  critical  period  in  the  Civil  War  used  his  influence 
to  maintain  peace  between  the  two  countries. 

Since  his  death  the  queen  has  held  no  court ;  and  so  complete 
has  been  her  seclusion  that  in  1868  a  radical  member  of  Parlia- 
ment moved  that  her  majesty  be  invited  to  abdicate  or  choose  a 
regent.  The  motion  was  indignantly  rejected ;  but  it  revealed 
the  feeling  which  quite  generally  exists,  that  "  the  real  queen  died 
with  her  husband,  and  that  only  her  shadow  remains." 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.          3/1 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  (1861)  in  which  Prince  Albert  died, 
civil  war  broke  out  between  the  Northern  and  Southern  States  of 
the  American  Union.  A  few  weeks  later,  the  queen  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  her  "  determination  to  maintain  a  strict 
and  impartial  neutrality  in  the  contest  between  the  said  contend- 
ing parties."  The  rights  of  belligerents  —  in  other  words,  all 
the  rights  of  war  according  to  the  law  of  nations  —  were  granted 
to  the  South  equally  with  the  North ;  and  her  majesty's  subjects 
were  warned  against  aiding  either  side  in  the  conflict. 

The  progress  of  the  war  caused  terrible  distress  in  Lancashire, 
owing  to  the  cutting-off  of  supplies  of  cotton  for  the  mills  through  the 
blockade  of  the  ports  of  the  Confederate  States.  The  starving  weav- 
ers, however,  gave  their  moral  support  to  the  North,  and  continued 
steadfast  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  even  in  the  sorest  period  of 
their  suffering.  The  great  majority  of  the  manufacturers  and 
business  classes  generally,  the  Liverpool  merchants,  the  nobility, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  and  most  of  the  distinguished  political  and 
social  leaders,  in  Parliament  and  out,  with  nearly  all  the  influential 
journals,  sympathized  with  the  efforts  of  the  South  to  establish  an 
independent  confederacy.1  Late  in  the  autumn  of  1861  Captain 
Wilkes,  .of  the  United  States  Navy,  boarded  the  British  mail- 
steamer  Trent,  and  seized  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  Confederate 
commissioners,  on  their  way  to  England.  When  intelligence  of 
the  act  was  conveyed  to  President  Lincoln,  he  expressed  his  un- 
qualified disapproval  of  it,  saying :  "  This  is  the  very  thing  the 
British  captains  used  to  do.  They  claimed  the  right  of  searching 

1  Lord  John  Russell  (Foreign  Secretary),  Lord  Brougham,  Sir  John  Bowring, 
Carlyle,  Ruskin,  the  London  Times  and  Punch,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  South 
more  or  less  openly ;  while  others,  like  Mr.  Gladstone,  declared  their  full  belief  in 
the  ultimate  success  of  the  Confederacy. 

On  the  other  hand,  Prince  Albert,  John  Bright,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Professor  New- 
man, and  the  London  Dally  News  defended  the  cause  of  the  North. 

After  the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Punch  manfully  acknowledged  (see  issue 
of  May  6,  1865),  that  it  had  been  altogether  wrong  in  its  estimate  of  him  and  his 
measures ;  and  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  his  "  Kin  beyond  Sea "  in  "  Gleanings  of  Past 
Years,"  paid  a  noble  tribute  to  the  course  pursued  by  America  since  the  close  of 
the  war. 


372  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

American  ships,  and  carrying  men  out  of  them.  That  was  the 
cause  of  the  War  of  1812.  Now,  we  cannot  abandon  our  own 
principles ;  we  shall  have  to  give  up  these  men,  and  apologize 
for  what  we  have  done." 

Accordingly,  on  a  demand  made  by  the  British  government, — 
a  demand  which,  through  the  influence  of  the  prince  consort,  and 
with  the  approval  of  the  queen,  was  couched  in  most  conciliatory 
language,  —  the  commissioners  were  given  up,  and  an  apology 
made  by  Secretary  Seward. 

During  the  progress  of  the  war,  a  number  of  fast-sailing  vessels 
were  fitted  out  in  Great  Britain,  and  employed  in  running  the 
blockade  of  the  Southern  ports,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
them  with  arms,  ammunition,  and  manufactured  goods  of  various 
kinds.  Later,  several  gunboats  were  built  in  British  shipyards 
by  agents  of  the  Confederate  government,  for  the  purpose  of 
attacking  the  commerce  of  the  United  States.  The  most  famous 
of  these  privateers  was  the  Alabama,  built  expressly  for  the 
Confederate  service  by  Laird,  of  Liverpool,  armed  with  British 
cannon,  and  manned  chiefly  by  British  sailors.  Though  notified 
of  her  true  character,  Lord  Palmerston,  then  prime  minister, 
allowed  her  to  leave  port,  satisfied  with  the  pretext  that  she 
was  going  on  a  trial  trip.1  She  set  sail  on  her  career  of  destruc- 
tion, and  soon  drove  nearly  every  American  merchant  vessel  from 
the  seas.  In  the  summer  of  1864  she  was  defeated  and  sunk  by 
the  United  States  gunboat  Kearsarge.  After  the  war  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  demanded  damages  from  Great  Britain 
for  losses  caused  by  the  Alabama  and  other  English-built  pri- 
vateers. A  treaty  was  agreed  to  by  the  two  nations ;  and  by  its 
provisions  an  international  court  was  held  at  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, which  awarded  $15,500,000  in  gold  as  compensation  to  the 
United  States,  which  was  duly  paid.  The  most  important  result 
of  this  treaty  and  tribunal  was  that  they  established  a  precedent 


1  The  queen's  advocate  gave  his  opinion  that  the  Alabama  should  be  detained ; 
but  it  reached  the  Foreign  Secretary  (Lord  Russell)  just  after  she  had  put  to  sea. 


GOVERNMENT    BY    THE    PEOPLE.  373 

for  settling  by  arbitration  on  equitable  and  amicable  terms  what- 
ever questions  might  arise  in  future  between  the  two  nations.1 

640.  The  Second  Reform  Bill ;  Woman  Suffrage ;  Admission 
of  Jews  to  Parliament.  —  Excellent  as  was  the  Reform  Bill  of 
i832,2  many  thoughtful  men  felt  that  it  did  not  go  far  enough. 
There  was  also  great  need  of  municipal  reform,  since  in  many 
cities  the  tax-payers  had  no  voice  in  the  management  of  local 
affairs,  and  the  city  officers  spent  the  income  of  large  charitable 
funds  in  feasting  and  merry-making  while  the  poor  got  little  or 
nothing.  In  1835  a  law  was  passed  giving  tax-payers  in  such 
cities3  control  of  municipal  elections.  By  a  subsequent  amend- 
ment, the  ballot  in  such  cases  was  extended  to  women,4  and  for 
the  first  time  perhaps  in  modern  history  woman  suffrage  was  for- 
mally granted  by  supreme  legislative  act.  A  number  of  years  later, 
the  political  restrictions  imposed  on  the  Jews  were  removed.  Up 
to  this  time  (1858)  this  class  of  citizens,  though  very  wealthy  and 
influential  in  London  and  some  other  cities,  and  although  entitled 
to  vote  and  hold  municipal  office,  were  yet  debarred  from  Parlia- 
ment by  a  laW  which  required  them  to  make  oath  "  on  the  faith  of 
a  Christian."  This  law  was  now  so  modified  that  Baron  Rothschild 
took  his  seat  among  the  legislators  of  the  country.5 

In  1867  Mr.  Disraeli  (afterward  Earl  of  Beaconsfield),  the 
leader  of  the  Tory,  or  Conservative,  party,  brought  in  a  second 
Reform  Bill,  which  became  a  law.  This  provided  what  is  called 
"  household  suffrage,"  or,  in  other  words,  gave  the  right  to  vote  to 

1  This  treaty  imposed  duties  on  neutral  governments  of  a  far  more  stringent 
sort  than  Great  Britain  had  hitherto  been  willing  to  concede.  It  resulted,  further- 
more, in  the  passage  of  an  act  of  Parliament,  punishing  with  severe  penalties  such 
illegal  ship-building  as  that  of  the  Alabama.  See  Sheldon  Amos,  Fifty  Years  of 
the  English  Constitution,  1830-1880. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  625. 

8  This  municipal  act  did  not  include  the  city  of  London. 

4  Woman  suffrage  was  granted  to  single  women  and  widows  (householders)  in 
1869.    In  1870  an  act  was  passed  enabling  them  to  vote  at  school-board  elections, 
and  also  to  become  members  of  such  boards. 

5  See  Macaulay's  Essays,  "  Civil  Disabilities  of  the  Jews." 


374  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

every  householder  in  all  the  towns  of  the  kingdom  who  paid  a  tax 
for  the  support  of  the  poor,  and  to  all  lodgers  paying  a  rental  of 
;£io  ($50)  yearly;  it  also  increased  the  number  of  voters  among 
small  property-holders  in  counties. 

There  still,  however,  remained  a  large  class  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts for  whom  nothing  had  been  done.  The  men  who  tilled  the 
soil  were  miserably  poor  and  miserably  ignorant.  Joseph  Arch, 
a  Warwickshire  farm  laborer,  who  had  been  educated  by  hunger 
and  toil,  succeeded  in  establishing  a  national  union  among  men  of 
his  class,  of  which  he  became  president,  and  eventually,  mainly 
through  his  efforts,  they  secured  the  ballot.  Since  then,  under 
the  Liberal  ministry  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  a  third  Reform  Bill  has 
been  passed,1  which  went  into  operation  in  1886,  by  which  all 
residents  of  counties  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  have  the 
right  to  vote  on  the  same  condition  as  those  of  towns. 

It  is  estimated  that  this  law  added  about  two  and  a  half  millions 
of  voters,  and  that  there  is  now  one  voter  to  every  six  persons  of 
the  total  population,  whereas,  before  the  passing  of  the  first  Reform 
Bill  (1832),  there  was  not  over  one  in  fifty.  In  the  first  "  People's 
Parliament,"  in  1886,  Joseph  Arch,  and  several  others,  were  re- 
turned as  representatives  of  classes  of  the  population  who,  up  to 
that  date,  had  had  no  voice  in  the  legislation  of  the  country.  One 
step  more,  and  a  short  one,  and  Great  Britain,  like  America,  will 
have  universal  "manhood  suffrage." 

641.  Abolition  of  Compulsory  Church  Rates  ;  Disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Episcopal  Church;  the  Education  Act. — While  these 
reforms  were  taking  place  with  respect  to  elections,  others  of  great 
importance  were  also  being  effected.  Since  its  establishment  the 
Church  of  England  had  compelled  all  persons,  of  whatever  belief, 
to  pay  taxes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  church  of  the  parish  where 
they  resided.  Methodists,  Baptists,  and  other  Dissenters,  objected 
to  this  law  as  unjust,  since  in  addition  to  the  expense  of  support- 
ing their  own  form  of  worship,  they  were  obliged  to  contribute 

1  The  Representation  Act. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  3/5 

toward  maintaining  one  with  which  they  had  no  sympathy.  So 
great  had  the  opposition  become  to  paying  their  "  church  rates." 
that  in  1859  there  were  over  fifteen  hundred  parishes  in  England 
in  which  the  authorities  could  not  collect  them.  After  much  agita- 
tion a  law  was  finally  passed  abolishing  this  mode  of  tax,  and 
making  the  payment  of  rates  purely  voluntary.1  A  similar  act  of 
justice  was  soon  after  granted  to  Ireland.2  At  the  time  of  the 
union  of  the  two  countries  in  i8oo,3  the  maintenance  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  continued  to  remain  obligatory  upon  the 
Irish  people,  although  only  a  very  small  part  of  them  were  of  that 
faith.  Mr.  Gladstone's  law  disestablishing  this  branch  of  the 
national  church  left  all  religious  denominations  in  Ireland  to  the 
voluntary  support  of  those  who  belonged  to  them,  so  that  hence- 
forth the  English  resident  in  that  country  can  no  longer  claim  the 
privilege  of  worshipping  God  at  the  expense  of  his  Roman  Cath- 
olic neighbor. 

In  1870  a  system  of  common  schools  was  established  through- 
out the  kingdom  under  the  direction  of  a  government  board,  and 
hence  popularly  known  as  "  Board  Schools."  Up  to  this  date 
most  of  the  children  of  the  poor  had  been  educated  in  schools 
maintained  by  the  Church  of  England,  the  various  dissenting 
denominations,  and  by  charitable  associations,  or  such  endowments 
as  those  of  Edward  VI.4  It  was  found,  however,  that  more  than 
half  of  the  children  of  the  country  were  not  reached  by  these  in- 
stitutions, but  were  growing  up  in  such  a  state  of  dense  ignorance, 
that  in  the  agricultural  districts  a  large  proportion  could  neither 
read  nor  write.  By  the  "  Board  Schools  "  elementary  unsectarian 
instruction  is  made  compulsory,  and  though  not  wholly  free,  it  is 
so  nearly  so  that  it  is  brought  within  the  means  of  the  poorest. 
A  year  later  the  universities  and  colleges,  with  most  of  the  offices 

1  Church  rates  were  levied  on  all  occupiers  of  land  or  houses  within  the  parish. 
They  were  abolished  in  1868.    The  Church  of  England  is  now  mainly  supported 
by  a  tax  on  landowners,  and  by  its  endowments. 

2  The  Disestablishment  Bill  was  passed  in  1869,  and  took  effect  in  1871. 
8  See  Paragraph  No.  619.  *  See  Paragraph  No.  417. 


3/6  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

and  professorships  connected  with  them,  were  thrown  open  to  all 
persons  without  regard  to  religious  belief;  whereas,  formerly,  no 
one  could  graduate  from  Oxford  or  Cambridge  without  subscribing 
to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England. 

642.  The  First  Irish  Land  Act. — The  same  year  (1870)  that 
the  government  undertook  to  provide  for  the  education  of  the 
masses,  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  prime  minister  and  head  of  the  Lib- 
eral party,  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  relief  of  the  Irish  peasantry. 
The  circumstances  under  which   land  was  held  in  Ireland  were 
peculiar.     A  very  large  part  —  in  fact  about  all  the  best  of  that 
island  —  was,  and  still  is,  owned  by  Englishmen  whose  ancestors 
obtained   it   through    the   wholesale    confiscations   of  Cromwell, 
James  I.,  and  later  sovereigns,  in  punishment  for  rebellion.    Very 
few  English  landlords  have  cared  to  live  in  the  country  or  to  do 
anything  for  its  improvement.     Their  overseers  believed  they  did 
their  whole  duty  when  they  forced  the  farm  tenants  to  pay  the 
largest  amount  of  rent  that  could  be  wrung  from  them,  and  they 
had  it  in  their  power  to  dispossess  a  tenant  of  his  land  whenever 
they  saw  fit,  without  giving  a  reason  for  the  act.     If  by  his  labor 
the  tenant  made  the  land  more  fertile,  he  reaped  no  profit  from 
his  industry,  for  the  rent  was  at  once  increased,  and  swallowed 
up  all  that  he  raised.     Such  a  system  of  extortion  was  destruc- 
tive to  the  peasant  farmer,  and   produced  nothing  for  him  but 
misery  and  discontent.     The  new  law  endeavored  to  remedy  these 
evils  by  providing  that  if  a  landlord  ejected  a  rent-paying  tenant, 
he  should  pay  him  damages,  and  also  allow  him  a  fair  sum  for 
whatever  improvements  he  had  made.    In  addition,  provision  was 
made    for  a  ready  means   of  arbitration   between  landlord   and 
tenant,  and  the  tenant  who  failed  to  pay  an  exorbitant  rate  was 
not  to  be  hastily  or  unjustly  driven  from  the  land. 

643.  Distress  in  Ireland;  the  Land  League. — It  was  hoped 
by  the  friends  of  the  measure  that  the  new  law  would  be  pro- 
ductive of  relief;  but  from  1876  to  1879  tne  potato  crop  failed  in 
Ireland,  and  the  country  seemed  threatened  with  a  famine  like 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  377 

that  of  1845.  Thousands  who  could  not  get  the  means  to 
pay  even  a  moderate  rent,  much  less  the  amounts  demanded, 
were  now  forced  to  leave  their  cabins  and  seek  shelter  in  the 
bogs,  with  the  prospect  of  dying  there  of  starvation.  This  state 
of  things  led  a  number  of  influential  Irishmen  to  form  a  Land 
League,  which  had  for  its  object  the  abolition  of  the  present  land- 
lord system,  and  the  securing  of  such  legislation  as  should  eventu- 
ally result  in  giving  the  Irish  peasantry  possession  of  the  soil  they 
cultivated. 

Later,  the  League  came  to  have  a  membership  of  several  hundred 
thousand  persons,  extending  over  the  greater  part  of  Ireland.  Find- 
ing that  it  was  difficult  to  get  parliamentary  help  for  their  griev- 
ances, the  League  resolved  to  try  a  different  kind  of  tactics.  Ac- 
cordingly they  formed  a  compact  not  to  work  for,  buy  from,  sell  to, 
or  have  any  intercourse  with,  such  landlords,  or  their  agents,  or  with 
any  other  person,  who  extorted  exorbitant  rent,  ejected  tenants  un- 
able to  pay,  or  took  possession  of  land  from  which  tenants  had  been 
unjustly  driven.  This  process  of  social  excommunication  was  first 
tried  on  an  English  agent,  or  overseer,  named  Boycott,  and  soon 
became  famous  under  the  name  of  "  boycotting."  As  the  struggle 
went  on,  many  of  the  suffering  poor  became  desperate.  Farm 
buildings,  belonging  to  landlords  and  their  agents,  were  burned, 
cattle  horribly  mutilated,  and  a  number  of  the  agents  shot.  At 
the  same  time  the  cry  rose  of  No  Rent,  Death  to  the  Landlords  ! 
Hundreds  of  tenants  now  refused  to  pay  foi  the  places  they  held, 
and  even  attacked  those  who  did.  Eventually  the  lawlessness  of 
the  country  provoked  the  government  to  take  severe  measures ; 
the  Land  League,  which  was  believed  to  be  responsible  for  the 
refusal  to  pay  rent,  and  for  the  accompanying  outrages,  was  sup- 
pressed ;  but  the  feeling  which  gave  rise  to  it  could  not  be  extin- 
guished, and  it  soon  burst  forth  more  violently  than  ever. 

644.  The  Second  Irish  Land  Act;  Fenian  and  Communist 
Outrages.  — In  1881  Mr.  Gladstone  succeeded  in  carrying  through 
a  second  land  law,  which  it  was  hoped  might  be  more  effective  in 


3/8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

relieving  the  Irish  peasants  than  the  first  had  been.  This  meas- 
ure is  familiarly  known  as  the  "Three  F's,"  —  Fair-rent,  Fixity-of- 
tenure,  and  Free-sale.  By  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  tenant 
may  appeal  to  a  board  of  land  commissioners  appointed  by  the 
law  to  fix  the  rate  of  his  rent  in  case  the  demands  made  by  the 
landlord  seem  to  him  excessive.  Next,  he  can  continue  to  hold 
his  farm,  provided  he  pays  the  rate  determined  on,  for  a  period 
of  fifteen  years,  during  which  time  the  rent  cannot  be  raised  nor 
the  tenant  evicted  except  for  violation  of  agreement  or  persistent 
neglect  or  waste  of  the  land ;  lastly,  he  may  sell  his  tenancy  when 
he  sees  fit  to  the  highest  bidder. 

After  the  passage  of  this  second  Land  Act,  Lord  Frederick 
Cavendish,  chief  secretary  of  Ireland,  and  Mr.  Burke,  a  prominent 
government  official,  were  murdered  in  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin.  Later, 
members  of  various  secret  and  communistic  societies  perpetrated 
dynamite  outrages  in  London  and  other  parts  of  England  for  the 
purpose  of  intimidating  the  government.  These  dastardly  plots 
for  destruction  and  murder  have  been  denounced  with  horror  by 
the  leaders  of  the  Irish  National  Party,  who  declare  that  "the 
cause  of  Ireland  is  not  to  be  served  by  the  knife  of  the  assassin  or 
the  infernal  machine."  Notwithstanding  the  vindictive  feeling 
which  these  rash  acts  have  caused,  despite  also  of  the  passage  of 
the  coercion  bill  of  1887,  the  majority  of  the  more  intelligent  and 
thoughtful  of  the  Irish  people  have  faith  that  the  logic  of  events 
will  ultimately  obtain  for  them  the  full  enjoyment  of  those  political 
rights  which  England  so  fully  possesses,  and  which  she  cannot, 
without  being  false  to  herself,  deny  to  her  sister-island. 

645.   The  Leading  Names  in  Science,  Literature,  and  Art.  — 

In  the  progress  of  science  the  present  age  has  had  no  equal  in  the 
past  history  of  England,  except  in  the  discovery  of  the  law  of  grav- 
itation by  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  That  great  thinker  demonstrated  that 
all  forms  of  matter,  great  or  small,  near  or  distant,  are  governed  by 
one  universal  law.  In  like  manner  the  researches  of  the  past  fifty 
years  have  virtually  established  the  belief  that  all  material  forms, 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  3/9 

whether  living  or  not,  obey  an  equally  universal  law  of  develop- 
ment, by  which  the  higher  are  derived  from  the  lower  through 
a  succession  of  gradual  but  progressive  changes. 

This  conception  originated  long  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Victorian  era,  but  it  lacked  the  acknowledged  support  of  carefully 
examined  facts,  and  was  regarded  by  most  sensible  men  as  a  plau- 
sible but  untenable  idea.  The  thinker  who  did  more  than  any  other 
to  supply  the  facts,  and  to  put  the  theory,  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
natural  history,  on  a  solid  and  lasting  foundation,  was  the  distin- 
guished English  naturalist,  Charles  Darwin,1  who  died  in  1882^ 
and  found  an  honored  resting-place  in  Westminster  Abbey,  near 
the  graves  of  the  well-known  geologist,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  and  Liv- 
ingstone, the  African  explorer. 

On  his  return  in  1837  from  a  voyage  of  scientific  discovery  round 
the  world,  he  began  to  examine  and  classify  the  facts  which  he 
had  collected,  and  continued  to  collect,  relating  to  natural  history. 
After  twenty-two  years  of  uninterrupted  labor  he  published  a  work 
("  The  Origin  of  Species  ")  in  1859  in  which  he  showed  that  anima! 
life  owes  its  course  of  development  to  the  struggle  for  existence 
and  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest."  Darwin's  work  may  truthfully  be 
said  to  have  wrought  a  revolution  in  the  study  of  nature  as  great 
as  that  accomplished  by  Newton  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Though  calling  forth  the  most  heated  and  prolonged  discussion, 
the  Darwinian  theory  has  gradually  made  its  way,  and  is  now 
generally  received,  though  sometimes  in  a  modified  form,  by 
nearly  every  eminent  man  of  science  throughout  the  world.  A 
little  later  than  the  date  at  which  Mr.  Darwin  began  his  re- 
searches, Sir  William  Grove,  an  eminent  electrician,  commenced  a 
series  of  experiments  which  have  led  to  a  great  change  in  our 
conceptions  of  matter  and  force.  He  showed  that  heat,  light,  and 
electricity  are  mutually  convertible  ;  that  they  must  be  regarded  as 

1  Alfred  Russell  Wallace,  also  noted  as  a  naturalist,  worked  out  the  theory  of 
evolution  by  "  natural  selection  "  about  the  same  time,  though  not  so  fully  with 
respect  to  details,  as  Darwin:  as  each  of  these  investigators  arrived  at  his  conclu- 
sions independently  of  the  other,  the  theory  was  thus  doubly  confirmed. 


380  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

modes  of  motion ;  and,  finally,  that  all  force  is  persistent  and  in- 
destructible,1 thus  proving,  as  Professor  Tyndall  says,  that  "To 
nature,  nothing  can  be  added ;  from  nature,  nothing  can  be  taken 
away."  Together,  these,  with  kindred  discoveries,  have  resulted 
in  the  theory  of  evolution,  or  development,  which  Herbert  Spencer 
and  others  have  endeavored  to  make  the  basis  of  a  system  of 
philosophy  embracing  the  whole  field  of  nature  and  life. 

In  literature  so  many  names  of  note  are  found  that  the  mere 
enumeration  of  them  would  be  impracticable  here.  It  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  mention  the  novelists,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Bronte,  and 
"  George  Eliot "  ;  the  historians,  Hallam,  Arnold,  Grote,  Macaulay, 
Alison,  Buckle,  Froude,  and  Freeman ;  the  essayists,  Carlyle,  Lan- 
dor,  and  De  Quincey ;  the  poets,  Browning  and  Tennyson ;  the 
philosophical  writers,  Hamilton,  Mill,  and  Spencer;  with  Lyell, 
Faraday,  Carpenter,  Tyndall,  Huxley,  and  Wallace  in  science  ;  the 
eminent  art-critic  and  writer  on  political  economy,  John  Ruskin  ; 
and  in  addition,  the  chief  artists  of  the  period,  Millais,  Rossetti, 
Burne- Jones,  Watts,  and  Hunt. 

646.  Progress  in  England. — The  legislation  of  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  offers  abundant  evidence  that  Macaulay  was  right  when 
he  declared  that  "  the  history  of  England  is  the  history  of  a  great 
and  progressive  nation."  Merely  to  read  the  records  of  the  statute- 
book  during  that  time  would  convince  any  person  not  hopelessly 
prejudiced  that  no  people  of  Europe  have  made  greater  advance- 
ment than  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  Nor  has  this  progress 
been  confined  to  political  reform.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  found  in 
every  department  of  thought  and  action.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  century,  and,  in  fact,  to  a  great  degree  since  the  accession 
of  the  present  queen,  the  systems  of  law  and  judicature  have  been 
in  large  measure  reconstructed.2  This  is  especially  evident  in  the 

1  An  Essay  on  the  Correlation  of  Physical  Forces,  by  W.  R.  Grove. 

2  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  Parliamentary  Statutes  filled  forty-four  huge  folio 
volumes,  and  the  Common  Law,  as  contained  in  judicial  decisions  dating  from  the 
time  of  Edward  II.,  filled  about  twelve  hundred  more.    The  work  of  examining, 
digesting,  and  consolidating  this  enormous  mass  of  legal  lore  was  begun  in  1805, 
and  is  still  in  progress. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  381 

Court  of  Chancery1  and  the  criminal  courts.  In  1825  the  prop- 
erty belonging  to  suitors  in  the  former  court  amounted  to  neftrly 
two  hundred  millions  of  dollars.2  The  simplest  case  required  a 
dozen  years  for  its  settlement,  while  difficult  ones  consumed  a  life- 
time, or  more,  and  were  handed  down  from  father  to  son  —  a 
legacy  of  baffled  hopes,  of  increasing  expense,  of  mental  suffering 
worse  than  that  of  hereditary  disease.  Much  has  been  done  to 
remedy  these  evils,  which  Dickens  set  forth  with  such  power  in 
his  novel,  "Bleak  House,"  and  which  at  one  time  seemed  so 
utterly  hopeless  that  it  was  customary  for  a  prize-fighter,  when  he 
had  got  his  opponent  wholly  at  his  mercy,  to  declare  that  he  had 
his  head  "  in  chancery  "  ! 

In  criminal  courts  an  equal  reform  has  taken  place,  and  men 
accused  of  burglary  and  murder  are  now  allowed  to  have  counsel 
to  defend  them  ;  whereas,  up  to  the  era  of  the  coronation  of  Vic- 
toria, they  were  obliged  to  plead  their  own  cases  as  best  they 
might  against  skilled  public  prosecutors,  who  used  every  resource 
known  to  the  law  to  convict  them. 

Great  changes  for  the  better  have  also  taken  place  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  insane.  Until  near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  this 
unfortunate  class  was  quite  generally  regarded  as  possessed  by 
demons,  and  dealt  with  accordingly.  In  1792  William  Tuke,  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  inaugurated  a  better  system ; 
but  the  old  method  continued  for  many  years  longer.  In  fact,  we 
have  the  highest  authority  for  saying,  that  down  to  a  late  period  in 
the  present  century  the  inmates  of  many  asylums  were  worse  off 
than  the  most  desperate  criminals.  They  were  shut  up  in  dark, 
and  often  filthy,  cells,  where  "  they  were  chained  to  the  wall, 
flogged,  starved,  and  not  infrequently  killed."3  Since  then,  all 
mechanical  restraint  has  been  abolished,  and  the  patients  are,  as  a 
rule,  treated  with  the  care  and  kindness  which  their  condition 
demands. 


1  See  Paragraph  No.  195. 

2  See  Walpole's  History  of  England,  Vol.  III. 

8  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  gth  ed.,  "  Insanity." 


382  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Immense  improvement  has  likewise  been  made  in  the  social 
condition  of  the  people.  Not  only  has  the  average  wealth  of  the 
country  greatly  increased,  but  deposits  in  savings  banks  prove 
that  the  workingmen  are  laying  away  large  sums  which  were  for- 
merly spent  in  drink.  Statistics  show1  that  crime,  drunkenness,  and 
pauperism  have  materially  diminished.  On  the  other  hand,  free 
libraries,  reading-rooms,  and  art-galleries  have  been  opened  in  all 
the  large  towns.  Liverpool  is  no  longer  "  that  black  spot  on  the 
Mersey  "  which  its  cellar  population  of  40,000,  and  its  hideous 
slums,  with  a  population  of  nearly  70,000  more,  once  made  it. 
Sanitary  regulations,  with  house-to-house  inspection,  have  done 
away  with  filth  and  disease,  which  were  formerly  accepted  as  a 
matter  of  course,  and  new  safeguards  now  protect  the  health 
and  life  of  classes  of  the  population  who  were  once  simply  mis- 
erable outcasts.  Hospitals  and  charitable  associations,  with  bands 
of  trained  nurses,  provide  for  the  sick  and  suffering  poor.  Prison 
discipline  has  ceased  to  be  the  terrible  thing  it  was  when  Charles 
Reade  wrote  "  Never  too  Late  to  Mend,"  and  the  convict  in  his 
cell  no  longer  feels  that  he  is  utterly  helpless  and  friendless. 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  best  men  and  the  best 
minds  in  England,  without  distinction  of  rank  or  class,  are  now 
laboring  for  the  advancement  of  the  people.  They  see,  what  has 
never  been  so  clearly  seen  before,  that  the  nation  is  a  unit,  that 
the  welfare  of  each  depends  ultimately  on  the  welfare  of  all,  and  that 
the  higher  a  man  stands,  and  the  greater  his  wealth  and  privileges, 
so  much  the  more  is  he  bound  to  extend  a  helping  hand  to  those 
less  favored  than  himself.  Undoubtedly  the  weak  point  in  England 
is  the  fact  that  a  few  thousand  of  her  population  own  all  the  land 
which  thirty  millions  live  upon,2  and  here  lies  the  great  danger  of 
the  future.  Yet  aside  from  that  hot-headed  socialism  which  insists 
alike  on  the  abolition  of  rank  and  of  private  property  in  land, 
there  has  thus  far  been  little  disposition  to  violent  action.  Eng- 
land, by  nature  conservative,  is  slow  to  break  the  bond  of  historic 

1  See  Ward,  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria.  2  See  Statistics,  page  409. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  383 

continuity  which  connects  her  present  with  her  past.  "  Do  you 
think  we  shall  ever  have  a  second  revolution?"  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington was  once  asked.  "  We  may,"  answered  the  great  general, 
"  but  if  we  do,  it  will  come  by  act  of  Parliament."  That  reply 
probably  expresses  the  general  temper  of  the  people,  who  believe 
that  they  can  gain  by  the  ballot  more  than  they  can  by  an  appeal 
to  force,  knowing  that  theirs  is  — 

"  A  land  of  settled  government, 
A  land  of  just  and  old  renown, 
Where  freedom  broadens  slowly  down, 
From  precedent  to  precedent."  l 

647.   General  Summary  of  the  Rise  of  the  English  People.  — 

Such  is  the  condition  of  England  near  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  in  the  jubilee  year  of  the  Victorian  era.2  If  we  pause  now 
and  look  back  to  the  time  when  the  island  of  Britain  first  became 
inhabited,  we  shall  see  the  successive  steps  which  have  trans- 
formed a  few  thousand  barbarians  into  a  great  and  powerful  em- 
pire.3 

i.  Judging  from  the  remains  of  their  flint  implements  and 
weapons,  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  original  popu- 
lation of  Britain  was  in  no  respect  superior  to  the  American 
Indians  that  Columbus  found  in  the  New  World.  They  had 
the  equality  which  everywhere  prevails  among  savages,  where  all 
are  alike  ignorant,  alike  poor,  and  alike  miserable.  The  tribal 
unity  which  bound  them  together  in  hostile  clans  resembled  that 
found  among  a  pack  of  wolves  or  a  herd  of  buffalo  —  it  was  in- 
stinctive rather  than  intelligent,  and  sprang  from  necessity  rather 


1  Tennyson's  "  You  ask  me  why." 

2  The  queen  celebrated  her  jubilee  year  on  the  2ist  of  June,  1887,  by  services 
held  in  Westminster  Abbey.     It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  occasion  could  not  also 
have  been  celebrated  by  the  beginning  of  some  national  work  for  the  welfare  of 
the  people,  such  as  might  have  given  her  majesty  an  opportunity  to  commemo- 
rate her  long  and  prosperous  reign  in  the  glad  remembrance  of  thousands  of  grate- 
mi  hearts. 

3  See  Map  No.  14,  page  382. 


384  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

than  from  independent  choice.  Gradually  these  tribes  learned  to 
make  tools  and  weapons  of  bronze,  and  to  some  extent  even  of 
iron  ;  then  they  ceased  the  wandering  life  of  men  who  live  by  hunt- 
ing and  fishing,  and  began  to  cultivate  the  soil,  raise  herds  of 
cattle,  and  live  in  rudely  fortified  towns.  Such  was  their  condi- 
tion when  Caesar  invaded  the  island,  and  when  the  power  of  Roman 
armies  and  Roman  civilization  reduced  the  aborigines  to  a  state 
but  little  better  than  that  of  the  most  abject  slavery.  When,  after 
several  centuries  of  occupation,  the  Roman  power  was  withdrawn, 
we  find  that  the  race  they  had  subjugated  had  gained  nothing 
from  their  conquerors,  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  they  had  lost 
much  of  their  native  courage  and  mai  hood. 

2.  With  the  Saxon  invasion  the  true  history  of  the  country  may 
be  said  to  begin.    The  fierce  blue-eyed  German  race  living  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  and  of  the  North  Sea,  brought  with  them  a 
love  of  liberty  and  a  power  to  defend  it  which  even  the  Romans 
in  their  continental  campaigns  had  not  been  able  to  subdue.    They 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  new  nation  ;  their  speech,  their  laws,  their 
customs,  became  permanent,  and  by  them  the  Britain  of  the  Celts 
and  the  Romans  was  baptized  with  that  name  of  England  which 
it  has  ever  since  retained. 

3.  Five  hundred  years  later  came  the  Norman  Conquest.     By 
it  the  Saxons  were  temporarily  brought  into  subjection  to  a  people 
who,  though  they  spoke  a  different  language,  sprang  originally  from 
the  same  Germanic  stock  as  themselves. . 

This  conquest  introduced  higher  elements  of  civilization,  the  life 
of  England  was  to  a  certain  extent  united  with  the  broader  and 
more  cultivated  life  of  the  continent,  and  the  feudal  or  military 
tenure  of  the  land,  which  had  begun  among  the  Saxons,  was  fully 
organized  and  developed.  At  the  same  time  the  king  became  the 
real  head  of  the  government,  which  before  was  practically  in  the 
hands  of  the  nobles,  who  threatened  to  split  it  up  into  a  self- 
destructive  anarchy. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  this  period  was  the  fact  that  politi- 
cal liberty  depended  wholly  on  the  possession  of  the  soil.  The 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  38$ 

landless  man  was  a  slave  or  a  serf ;  in  either  case,  so  far  as  the 
state  was  concerned,  his  rank  was  simply  zero.  Above  him  there 
was,  properly  speaking,  no  English  people ;  that  is,  no  great  body 
of  inhabitants  united  by  common  descent,  by  participation  in  the 
government,  by  common  interests,  by  pride  of  nationality  and  love 
of  country.  On  the  contrary,  there  were  only  classes  separated  by 
strongly  marked  lines  —  ranks  of  clergy,  or  ranks  of  nobles,  with 
their  dependents.  Those  who  owned  and  ruled  the  country  were 
Normans,  speaking  a  different  tongue  from  those  below,  and  look- 
ing upon  them  with  that  contempt  with  which  the  victor  regards 
the  vanquished,  while  those  below  returned  the  feeling  with  sullen 
hate  and  fear. 

4.  The  rise  of  the  people  was  obscure  and  gradual.     It  began 
in  the  conflicts  between  the  barons  and  the  crown.     In  those  con- 
tests both  parties  needed  the  help  of  the  working  classes.     To  get 
it  each  side  made  haste  to  grant  some  privilege  to  those  whose 
assistance  they  required.      Next,  the  foreign  wars  had  no  small 
influence,  since  friendly  relations  naturally  sprang  up  between  those 
who  fought  side  by  side,  and  the  Saxon  yeoman  and  the  Norman 
knight  henceforth  felt  that  England  was  their  common  home,  and 
that  in  her  cause  they  must  forget  differences  of  rank  and  blood. 

It  was,  however,  in  the  provisions  of  the  Great  Charter  that  the 
people  first  gained  legal  recognition.  When  the  barons  forced 
King  John  to  issue  that  document,  they  found  it  expedient  to 
protect  the  rights  of  all.  For  that  reason,  the  great  nobles  and 
the  clergy  made  common  cause  with  peasants,  tradesmen,  and 
serfs.  Finally,  the  rise  of  the  free  cities  secured  to  their  inhabi- 
tants many  of  the  privileges  of  self-government,  while  the  Wat 
Tyler  insurrection  of  a  later  period  led  eventually  to  the  emanci- 
pation of  that  numerous  class  which  was  bound  to  the  soil. 

5.  But  the  real  unity  of  the  people  first  showed  itself  unmis- 
takably in  consequence  of  a  new  system  of  taxation,  levied  on  per- 
sons of  small  property  as  well  as  on  the  wealthy  landholders.    The 
moment  the  government  laid  hands  on  the  tradesman's  and  the 
laborer's  pockets,  they  demanded  to  have  a  share  in  legislation 


386  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

Out  of  that  demand  sprang  the  House  of  Commons,  a  body,  as  its 
name  implies,  made  up  of  representatives  chosen  mainly  from  the 
people  and  by  the  people. 

The  great  contest  now  was  for  the  power  to  levy  taxes  —  if  the 
king  could  do  it  he  might  take  the  subject's  money  when  he 
pleased  ;  if  Parliament  alone  had  the  control  in  this  matter,  then  it 
would  be  as  they  pleased.  Little  by  little  not  only  did  Parliament 
obtain  the  coveted  power,  but  that  part  of  Parliament  which 
directly  represented  the  people  got  it,  and  it  was  finally  settled  that 
no  tax  could  be  demanded  save  by  their  vote.  This  victory,  how- 
ever, was  not  gained  except  by  a  long  and  bitter  conflict,  in  which 
sometimes  one  and  sometimes  the  other  of  the  contestants  got  the 
best  of  it,  and  in  which  also  Jack  Cade's  insurrection  in  behalf  of 
free  elections  had  its  full  influence.  But  though  temporarily 
beaten,  the  people  never  quite  gave  up  the  struggle ;  thus  "  the 
murmuring  Parliament  of  Mary  became  the  grumbling  Parliament 
of  Elizabeth,  and  finally  the  rebellious  and  victorious  Parlia- 
ment of  Charles  I.,"  when  the  executioner's  axe  settled  the  ques- 
tion who  was  to  rule,  set  up  a  short-lived  but  vigorous  republic. 

6.  Meanwhile  a  great  change  had  taken  place  in  the  condition 
of  the  aristocracy.  The  wars  of  the  Roses  had  destroyed  the  power 
of  the  Norman  barons,  and  the  Tudors  —  especially  Henry  VIII. 
by  his  action  in  suppressing  the  monasteries,  and  granting  the 
lands  to  his  favorites  —  virtually  created  a  new  aristocracy,  many 
of  whom  sprang  from  the  ranks  of  the  people. 

Under  Cromwell,  the  republic  practically  became  a  monarchy,  — 
though  Cromwell  was  at  heart  no  monarchist ;  all  power  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Army,  with  the  Protector  at  its  head.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  monarchy,  the  government  of  the  country  was 
carried  on  mainly  by  the  two  great  political  parties,  the  Whigs  and 
the  Tories,  representing  the  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads,  or  the 
aristocratic  and  people's  parties  of  the  civil  war.  With  the  flight  of 
James  II.,  the  passage  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  and  the  Act  of  Settle- 
ment, Parliament  set  aside  the  regular  hereditary  order  of  succes- 
sion, and  established  a  new  order,  in  which  the  sovereign  was 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.  387 

made  dependent  on  the  people  for  his  right  to  rule.  Next,  the 
Mutiny  Bill  put  the  power  of  the  army  practically  into  the  hands 
of  Parliament,  which  already  held  full  control  of  the  purse.  The 
Toleration  Act  granted  liberty  of  worship,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
censorship  of  the  press  gave  freedom  to  expression.  With  the 
corning  in  of  George  I.,  the  king  ceased  to  appoint  his  cabinet, 
leaving  its  formation  to  his  prime  minister.  Hereafter  the  cabinet 
no  longer  met  with  the  king,  and  the  executive  functions  of  the 
government  were  conducted,  to  a  constantly  increasing  extent, 
without  his  taking  any  active  part  in  them.  Still,  though  the 
people  through  Parliament  claimed  to  rule,  yet  the  great  land- 
holders, and  especially  the  Whig  nobility,  held  the  chief  power ; 
the  sovereign,  it  is  true,  no  longer  tried  to  govern  in  spite  of 
Parliament,  but  by  controlling  elections  and  legislation  he  managed 
to  govern  through  it. 

7.  With  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine,  and  the  growth  of 
great  manufacturing  towns  in  the  central  and  northern  counties 
of  England,  many  thousands  of  the  population  were  left  without 
representation.  Their  demands  to  have  this  inequality  righted 
resulted  in  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  which  broke  up  in  great  meas- 
ure the  political  monopoly  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  landholders  and 
aristocracy,  and  distributed  the  power  among  the  middle  classes. 
The  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  established  the  principle  that 
the  cabinet  should  be  held  directly  responsible  to  the  major- 
ity of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  that  they  should  not  be 
appointed  contrary  to  the  wish,  or  dismissed  contrary  to  the  con- 
sent, of  that  majority.  By  the  Reform  Bills  of  1867  and  1884, 
the  suffrage  has  been  greatly  extended,  so  that,  practically,  the 
centre  of  political  gravity  which  was  formerly  among  -the  wealthy 
and  privileged  classes,  and  which  passed  from  them  to  the  manu- 
facturing and  mercantile  population,  has  shifted  to  the  working 
classes,  who  now  possess  the  balance  of  power  in  England  almost 
as  completely  as  they  do  in  America.  Thus  we  see  that  by 
gradual  steps  those  who  once  had  few  or  no  rights,  have  come 


388  LEADING   FACTS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

to  be  the  masters ;  and  though  England  continues  to  be  a  mon- 
archy in  name,  yet  it  is  well-nigh  a  republic  in  fact. 

In  feudal  times  the  motto  of  knighthood  was  Noblesse  oblige  — 
or,  nobility  of  rank  demands  nobility  of  character.  To-day  the 
motto  of  every  free  nation  should  be,  Liberty  is  Responsibility,  for 
henceforth  both  in  England  and  America  the  people  who  govern 
are  bound,  by  their  own  history  and  their  own  declared  principles, 
to  use  their  opportunities  to  govern  well. 

The  danger  of  the  past  lay  in  the  tyranny  of  the  minority,  that 
of  the  present  is  the  tyranny  of  the  majority.  The  great  problem 
of  our  time  is  to  learn  how  to  reconcile  the  interests  of  each  with 
the  welfare  of  all.  To  do  that,  whether  on  an  island  or  on  a  con- 
tinent, in  England  or  America,  is  to  build  up  the  kingdom  of  jus- 
tice and  good  will  upon  the  earth. 

648.  Characteristics  of  English  History;  the  Unity  of  the 
English-Speaking  Race;  Conclusion.  — This  rapid  and  imperfect 
sketch  shows  what  has  been  accomplished  by  the  people  of  Britain. 
Other  European  peoples  may  have  developed  earlier,  and  made 
perhaps  more  rapid  advances  in  certain  forms  of  civilization,  but 
none  have  surpassed,  nay,  none  have  equalled,  the  English-speak- 
ing race  in  the  practical  character  and  permanence  of  their  prog- 
ress. Guizot  says !  the  true  order  of  national  development  in  free 
government  is,  first,  to  convert  the  natural  liberties  of  man  into 
clearly  defined  political  rights ;  and,  next,  to  guarantee  the  secu- 
rity of  those  rights  by  the  establishment  of  forces  capable  of 
maintaining  them.  Nowhere  do  we  find  better  illustrations  of 
this  law  of  progress  than  in  the  history  of  England,  and  of  the 
colonies  which  England  has  planted.  Trial  by  jury,2  the  legal 
right  to  resist  oppression,3  legislative  representation,4  religious  free- 
dom,5 and,  finally,  the  principle  that  all  political  power  is  a  trust 
held  for  the  public  good6 — these  are  the  assured  results  of  Anglo- 


1  Guizot's  History  of  Representative  Government,  Lecture  VI. 

2  See  Paragraph  No.  227.  8  See  Paragraph  No.  313. 

*  See  Paragraph  No.  265.  5  See  Paragraph  No.  548,  and  note  2. 

6  See  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Walpole. 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE.        389 

Saxon  growth,  and  the  legitimate  heritage  of  every  nation  of 
Anglo-Saxon  descent. 

Here,  in  America,  we  sometimes  lose  sight  of  what  those  have 
done  for  us  who  occupied  the  world  before  we  came  into  it.  We 
forget  that  English  history  is  in  a  very  large  degree  our  history, 
and  that  England  is,  as  Hawthorne  liked  to  call  it,  "  our  old 
home."  In  fact,  if  we  go  back  less  than  three  centuries,  the 
record  of  America  becomes  one  with  that  of  the  mother  country, 
which  first  discovered1  and  first  permanently  settled  this,  and 
which  gave  us  for  leaders  and  educators  Washington,  Franklin,  the 
Adamses,  and  John  Harvard.  In  descent,  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  us  are  of  English  blood ; 2  while  in  language,  literature,  law, 
legislative  forms  of  government,  and  the  essential  features  of  civili- 
zation, we  all  owe  to  England  a  greater  debt  than  to  any  other 
country ;  and  without  a  knowledge  of  her  history  we  cannot  rightly 
understand  our  own.  Standing  on  her  soil  we  possess  practically 
the  same  personal  rights  that  we  do  here ;  we  speak  the  same 
tongue,  we  meet  with  the  same  familiar  names.  We  feel  that 
whatever  is  glorious  in  her  past  is  ours  also  j  that  Westminster 
Abbey  belongs  as  much  to  us  as  to  her,  for  our  ancestors  helped 
to  build  its  walls,  and  their  dust  is  gathered  in  its  tombs;  that 
Shakespeare  and  Milton  belong  to  us  in  like  manner,  for  they 
wrote  in  the  language  we  speak,  for  the  instruction  and  delight  of 
our  fathers'  fathers,  who  beat  back  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  gave 
their  lives  for  liberty  on  the  fields  of  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  grave  issues  have  arisen  in  the  past  to 
separate  us  ;  yet,  after  all,  our  interests  and  our  sympathies,  like 


1  See  Paragraphs  No.  387  and  No.  473. 

v  In  1840  the  population  of  the  United  States,  in  round  numbers,  was  17,000,000, 
of  whom  the  greater  part  were  probably  of  English  descent  Since  then  there  has 
been  an  enormous  immigration,  forty  per  cent  of  which  was  from  the  British  Islands ; 
bin  it  is  perhaps  safe  to  say  that  three-quarters  of  our  present  population  of  60,000,000 
are  those  who  were  living  here  in  1840,  with  their  descendants.  Of  the  immigrants 
coming  from  non-English-speaking  races,  the  Germans  predominnte,  and  it  is  to 
them,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  English  owe  their  origin,  they  being  in  tact  but  a 
modification  of  the  Teutonic  race. 


39O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

our  national  histories,  have  more  in  common  than  they  have  apart. 
The  progress  of  each  country  now  reacts  for  good  on  the  other,  ii 
we  consider  the  total  combined  population  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  British  Empire,  we  find  that  to-day  upwards  of  one  hundred 
millions  o(  people  speak  the  English  tongue,  and  are  governed  by 
the  fundamental  principles  of  English  constitutional  law.  They 
hold  possession  of  over  twelve  millions  of  square  miles  of  the 
earth's  surface  —  an  area  nearly  equal  to  the  united  continents  of 
North  America  and  Europe.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  wealth 
and  power  of  the  globe  is  theirs.  They  have  expanded  by  their 
territorial  and  colonial  growth  as  no  other  people  have.  They 
have  absorbed  and  assimilated  the  millions  of  emigrants  from  every 
race  and  of  every  tongue  which  have  poured  into  their  dominions. 
The  result  is,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  islands,  of  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand,  the  United  States  and  Canada,  practically 
form  one  great  Anglo-Saxon  race,  diverse  in  origin,  separated  by 
distance,  but  everywhere  exhibiting  the  same  spirit  of  intelligent 
enterprise  and  of  steady,  resistless  growth.  Thus  considered, 
America  and  England  are  necessary  one  to  the  other.  Their  inter- 
ests now  and  in  the  future  are  essentially  the  same. 

In  view  of  these  facts  let  us  say,  with  an  eminent  thinker,1 
whose  intellectual  home  is  on  both  sides  the  Atlantic,  "  Whatever 
there  be  between  the  two  nations  to  forget  and  forgive,  is  forgotten 
and  forgiven.  If  the  two  peoples,  which  are  one,  be  true  to  their 
duty,  who  can  doubt  that  the  destinies  of  the  world  are  in  their 
hands?" 

1  Archdeacon  Farrar,  Address  on  General  Grant,  Westminster  Abbey,  1885. 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


391 


SUMMARY  OF  THE    PRINCIPAL   DATES  IN   ENGLISH 

HISTORY.1 

[The  *  marks  the  most  important  dates.] 


I.  THE  PREHISTORIC  PERIOD. 

Britain  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  Rough-Stone  Age. 

The  Polished-Stone  Age. 

Age  of  Bronze  begins,  1500  B.C.? 

Britain   mentioned  (?)   by  the   name  of  the 

"  Tin  Islands"  by  Herodotus,  B.C.  450. 
Britain  mentioned  by  the  name  of  "  Albion  " 

by  Aristotle?  B.C.  350? 
Pytheas  visits  and    describes    Britain,   B.C. 

330? 
Introduction  of  Iron,  B.C.  250? 

II.  THE  ROMAN  PERIOD,  B.C.  55,  54; 

A.D.  43-410. 

*Caesar  lands  in  Britain,  B.C.  55  and  54. 

Claudius   begins    the    conquest   of   Britain, 
A.D.  43. 

Caractacus  taken  prisoner,  50. 

Slaughter  of  the  Druids,  'i. 

Revolt  of  Boadicea,  61. 

Establishment  of  the  Roman  power  by  Agri- 
cola,  78-84. 

Agricola  builds  a  line  of  forts,  81. 

Hadrian's  Wall,  121  ? 
*Britain  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  410. 

III.  THE  SAXON,  OR  EARLY  ENGLISH, 
PERIOD,  449-1013;   1042-1066. 

-The  Jutes  settle  in  Kent,  449. 
Ella  and  Cissa  found  the  kingdom  of  Sussex, 

477- 

Cerdic  founds  the  kingdom  of  Wessex,  495. 
Arthur  defeats  the  Saxons,  520? 
The  Angles  settle  Northumbria,  547. 
Gildas  writes  his  history  of  Britain,  550? 
*Landing  of  Augustine;    conversion  of  Kent, 

597- 

Cxdmon,  first  English  poet,  664. 
Church  council  at  Whitby,  664. 


Conversion  of  Northumbria,  667. 

Church  bells  first  mentioned  by  Bede,  680. 

Bede,  the  historian,  dies,  735. 

Egbert  takes  refuge  at  the  court  of  Charle- 
magne, 786. 

First  landing  of  the  Danes  in  England,  789. 
*Egbert  (king  of  Wessex,  conquers  a  large 
part  of  the  country  (827),  and  takes  the 
title  of  "  King  of  the  English  "),  828. 

Alfred  the  Great,  871. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  becomes  irr.por- 

tant  from  about  this  time,  871. 
*Treaty  of  Wedmore,  879. 

Alfred  issues  his  code  of  laws,  890. 

Alfred  builds  a  fleet,  897. 

Frithguilds  (for  mutual  defence,  etc.)  men- 
tioned about  930? 

Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  960. 
*Britain  is  called  England,  960? 

Struggle  between  the  regular  and  secular 
clergy,  975. 

Invasion  of  the  Danes  —  Danegeld  paid  by 
decree  of  the  Witan  for  the  first  time,  991. 

IV.  DANISH  PERIOD,  1013-1042. 

Sweyn,  the  Dane,  is  acknowledged  king  of 
the  English,  1013. 

Edward  (afterward  King  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor) is  taken  to  Normandy,  where  he 
remains  until  1042,  1013. 

Canute,  the  Dane,  chosen  king,  1017. 

Divides  England  into  four  great  earldoms, 
1017. 

Godwin  made  Earl  of  Wessex,  1020. 

V.  THE  SAXON,  OR  EARLY  ENGLISH, 
PERIOD  (RESTORED),  1042-1066. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  1042. 
Edward  begins  building  Westminster  Abbey, 
1049. 


1  Many  early  dates  are  approximate  only. 


392 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  visits  Edward, 

1052. 

Harold,  last  of  the  Saxon  kings,  1066. 
William  of   Normandy  claims    the   throne, 

1066. 
Invasion  from  Norway;    battle  of  Stamford 

Bridge,  Sept.  25,  1066. 
William   of  Normandy   lands   at   Pevensey, 

Sept.  28,  1066. 
*Battle     of    Senlac,    or    Hastings  —  Harold 

killed  —  Oct.  14,  1066. 

VI.  THE  NORMAN  PERIOD,  1066- 
"54- 

\Villiarn  (crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey 
on  Christmas  Day),  1066. 

System  of  feudal   land-tenure  begins  to  be 

regularly  organized,  1066? 
*William  grants  a  charter  to  London,  1066? 

Begins  building  Tower  of  London,  1066? 

Beginning  of  Norman  architecture,  1066? 

Curfew  introduced,  about  1068? 

William  harries  the  North,  1069. 

Law  of  Englishry,  1069? 

Reorganizes  the  church,  1070. 

Creates  the  Palatine  earldoms,  1070? 

Establishes    separate    ecclesiastical    courts, 
1070? 

Trial  by  battle  introduced,  1070? 

The  English,  under  Hereward,  finally  de- 
feated at  Ely,  1071. 

William  invades  Scotland,  and  compels  the 
king  to  do  him  homage,  1072. 

William   refuses   to  become   subject   to   the 

Pope,  1076. 

*Domesday  Book  completed,  1086.  —  Reports  : 
Tenants-in-chief  (barons,  bishops,  ab- 
bots), about  1500;  Under-tenants  (chiefly 
English  dispossessed  of  their  estates,  about 
8000 ;  Yeomen,  north  of  Watling  St. ,  about 
35,000 ;  Yeomen,  sunk  to  a  condition 
bordering  on  serfdom  (south  of  Watling 
St.),  about  90,000;  Villeins,  or  serfs,  about 
109,000;  Slaves,  about  25,000;  Citizens, 
monks,  nuns,  priests,  etc. ,  about  i  ,732,000 ; 
Total  population,  about  2,000,000. 
*A11  the  landholders  of  England  swear  alle- 
giance to  William,  at  Salisbury,  1086. 

William  Rufus,  1087. 

Suppresses  rebellion  of  the  barons,  1088. 

Makes  war  on  Normandy,  1090. 

Quarrel  with  Anselm  —  robs   church   of  its 
revenue,  1094. 

Suppresses  second   rebellion  of  the   barons, 
1095. 


Builds  Westminster   Hall,   London    Bridge, 

1097? 
Henry  I.,  iioo. 

*  First  charter  of  liberties,  iioo. 
Expels  Robert  of  Belesme,  1102. 
Quarrels    with    Anselm   about    investitures, 

1103. 
Battle  of  Tinchebrai  —  Normandy  conquered, 

1106. 

Henry  and  Anselm  come  to  terms,  1106. 
Matilda,  d.  of  the  king,  marries  Geoffrey  of 

Anjou,  1128. 
Barons  swear  to  make  Matilda  successor  to 

the  throne,  1133. 
Stephen,  1135. 
Charter  of  liberties,  1135. 
Tournaments  begin,  1135? 
Matilda,  d.  of  Henry  I.,  claims  the  crown, 

"35- 

Battle  of  the  Standard,  1138. 
Civil  war  begins,  1139. 
William  of  Malmesbury's  Chronicle  closes, 

1142. 
Knights  Hospitallers  established  in  England, 

1150? 
Matilda's  so»   (Henry  II.)  marries  Eleanor 

of  France,  and  acquires   her   provinces, 

1152. 
Treaty  of  Wallingford,  1153. 

VII.  THE  ANGEVIN,  OR  PLANTA- 
GENET,  PERIOD,  1154-1399. 

Henry  II.,  1154. 

*Merchant  and  craft  guilds  become  prominent, 

"54? 
*Payment  of   scutage   regularly   established, 

1160  (see  1385). 

*Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  1164. 
Quarrel  with  Becket,  1164. 
Coats  of  Arms,  1165? 

*  Assize  of  Clarendon,    1166. 
Becket  murdered,  1170. 

*Partial  conquest  of  Ireland,  1171. 
Henry's  wife  and  sons  rebel,  1173. 
Henry  does  penance  at  Becket's  tomb,  1174. 
Rebellion  of  barons  suppressed,  1174. 
Assize    of   Northampton    (divides    England 

into  judicial  circuits),  1176. 
Five  judges  appointed  to  hear  all  cases,  1178. 
Knights  Templars  established  in   England, 

1180? 
Assize  of  Arms  (regulates  national   militia), 

1181. 

Henry's  sons  again  rebel,  1183. 
Assize  of  the  Forest,  1184. 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


393 


*Saladin  Tithe  (first  tax  on  personal  property), 
1188. 

*Great   Assize   (substitutes   trial   by  jury   in 

civil  cases  for  trial  by  battle),  1188? 
Richard  I.,  1189. 

Richard  persecutes  the  Jews,  sells  offices, 
extorts  money,  1189. 

*Richard  grants  many  town  charters,  1189. 

Joins  the  third  crusade,  1190. 

*Legal  recognition  of  the  corporation  of  Lon- 
don marks  the  triumph  of  the  mercantile 
element,  1191. 

Richard  taken  prisoner,  1192. 

England  ransoms  the  king,  1194. 

Returns  to  England,  and  is  re-crowned;  ex- 
torts money,  1194. 

Builds  Chateau  Gaillard,  near  Rouen,  1197. 

John,  1199. 

Introduction  of  the  mariner's  compass,  1200? 

Gothic,  or  Pointed,  architecture,  begins  in 
England,  1200? 

Layamon's  "  Brut,"  1200? 

Murder  (?)  of  Arthur,  1203. 
*Loss  of  Normandy,  1204. 

John  refuses  to  receive  Archbishop  Langton, 
1208. 

The  kingdom  placed  under  an  interdict,  1208. 

The  Pope  excommunicates  John,  1209. 

Threatens  to  depose  him,  1211. 

John  becomes  the  Pope's  vassal,  1213. 
*The  meeting  at  St.  Albans  (first  representative 
assembly  on  record)  to  consider  measures 
of  reform,  1213. 
*The  Great  Charter,  June  15,  1215. 

The  Pope  refuses  to  recognize  the  charter, 
and  excommunicates  the  leaders  of  the 
barons,  1215. 

The  barons  invite  Louis,  son  of  the  king  of 
France,  to  take  the  crown,  1215. 

War  between  John  and  the  barons,  1216. 

Henry  III.,  1216. 

Louis  goes  back  to  France,  1217. 

Charter  of  the  Forests,  1217. 

Henry  begins  rebuilding  Westminster  Abbey, 
1 220? 

The  Mendicant  Friars  land  in  England,  1221. 

Coal  mines  opened,  1234? 
*Parliament  of  Merton  rejects  the  Canon  Law, 
1236. 

All  persons  having  an  income  of  ,£20  a  year 
from  landed  property  forced  to  receive 
knighthood, 1256. 

The  Pope  first  claims  "annates"  from  Eng- 
land, 1256. 

"The  Mad  Parliament"  draws  up  the  Pre- 
visions of  Oxford,  1258. 


Matthew   Paris,   greatest  of    the    mediaeval 

chroniclers,  dies,  1259. 
The  Barons'  War;  battle  of  Lewes,  1264. 

*Walter  de  Merton  founds  Merton  College, 
Oxford  (beginning  of  the  collegiate  sys- 
tem), 1264. 

*Rise  of  the  House  of  Commons  under  Earl 

Simon  de  Montfort,  1265. 
Battle  of  Evesham;   Earl  Simon  killed,  1265. 
*Roger  Bacon  issues  his  "  Opus  Majus,"  1267. 

Roger  Bacon  describes  gunpowder?  1267. 

Courts  of  Exchequer,  King's  Bench,  and 
Common  Pleas  fully  organized,  1272? 

Edward  I.,  1272. 

The   groat   (four  pence)    first  coined,  1272. 
Up  to  this  date  the  only  coin  issued  was 
the  silver  penny. 
*Statute  of  Mortmain,  1279. 

Conquest  of  Wales,  1284. 

First  Prince  of  Wales,  1284? 
*The  Statute  of  De  Donis,  or  Entail,  1285. 

Customs  (on  wine,  wool,  etc.)  first  levied, 
1290? 

The  Jews  expelled  fro- ^  England,  1290. 

Statute  of  Quia  Emptores  (increases  number 
of  small  freeholders  holding  directly  from 
the  crown  or  great  lords),  1290. 

Alliance  between  Scotland  and  France  against 

England,  1294. 

*First  complete  Parliament  (Lords,  Clergy, 
and  Commons:  subsequently  the  clergy 
usually  met  by  themselves  in  convoca- 
tion), 1295. 

War  with  Scotland,  1295-6. 

Edward  seizes  the  wool  of  the  merchants 
(Maltote,  or  "  evil  tax  "),  1297. 

Edward  confirms  the  charters,  1297. 

Consent  of  Parliament  established  as  neces- 
sary to  taxation  (by  the  confirmation  of 
the  charters),  1297. 

Chimneys  begin  to  come  into  use,  1300? 

Renewed  war  with  Scotland:  execution  of 
Wallace;  defeat  of  Bruce,  1303-6. 

Edward  II.,  1307. 

Seizure  of  the  property  of  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars, 1308. 

Gaveston  dismissed,  1308. 

Torture  first  employed  in  England,  1310? 

The  Lords  Ordainers  (to  regulate  the  king's 
household),  1310. 

Gaveston  executed,  1312. 

Battle  of  Bannockburn,  1314. 
*House  of  Commons  gains  a  share  in  legisla- 
tion, 1322. 

Roger  Mortimer  and  the  queen  conspire 
against  Edward,  1326. 


394 


LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


The  Despensers  (king's  favorites)  hanged, 
1326. 

The  king  deposed  and  murdered,  1327. 

Edward  III.,  1327. 

Mixed  armor  (plate  and  mail),  1327? 

Many  brilliant  tournaments  held,  1327? 

Independence  of  Scotland  recognized,  1328. 
*Woollen  manufacture  introduced  from  Flan- 
ders, 1331? 

*House  of  Commons  (Knights  of  the  Shire 
and  Commons  united)  begin  to  sit  by 
themselves  as  a  distinct  body,  1333. 

Edward  takes  the  title,  of  King  of  France, 

1337- 

The  first  gold  coins  struck,  1337? 
Creates  his  son  Edward  Duke  of  Cornwall 

(title  of  duke  first  used),  1337. 
*Beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  with 

France,  1338  (see  1453). 
Talliage  (tax  on  towns  and  lands  held  by  the 

crown)  abolished,  1340. 

*Victory  of  Cre'cy  (cannon  first  used?),  1346. 
*Capture  of  Calais,  1347. 
Court  of  Chancery  finally  established,  1348. 
*The  Black  Death,  1349. 
*First  Statute  of  Laborers  (regulates  price  of 

labor,  etc.),  1349. 
First  Statute  of  Provisors  (limits   power  of 

Pope  in  England),  1351. 
First  Statute  of  Treasons,  1352. 
First  Statute  of  Praemunire  (limits  power  of 

the  Pope  in  England),  1353  (see  1393). 
Many  Staples  (market  or  custom  towns)  es- 
tablished, 1354? 
Great  increase  of  the  woollen  trade  with  the 

continent,  1354? 
*Victory  of  Poitiers,  1356. 
*Mandeville  writes  his  Travels,  1360? 
Exportation    of  corn    forbidden,    1360   (see 

1846). 

*Treaty  of  Bretigny,  1360. 
No  tax  to  be  levied  on  wool  without  consent 

of  Parliament,  1362;  renewed,  1371. 
First  iron  foundries,  1370? 
*Wykeham  founds  Winchester  College  (first 
great  public  school),  1373;  completes  C., 
I393- 

Parliament  first  grants  tonnage  and  pound- 
age (a  tax  on  merchandise)  to  the  king, 

'373- 
*The  House  of  Commons  gains  the  right  of 

impeaching  the  king's  ministers,  1376. 
*Wycliffe  begins  the  Reformation  (rise  of  the 

Lollards),  1377? 
Richard  II.,  1377. 
'Wycliffe  translates  the  Bible,  1380? 


*Peasant  revolts  led  by  Wat  Tyler,  1381. 

Langland  writes  "  Piers  Ploughman,"  1381. 
*Chaucer   begins    the  "  Canterbury  Tales," 
1384? 

Scutage  given  up,  1385?  (see  1160). 

The  title  of  Marquis  created,  1386. 
*The  Great  Statute  of  Prsemunire  (see  1353), 

1393- 
Richard  banishes  the  Duke  of  Hereford  (son 

of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster)  and 

the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  1398. 
Death  of  John  of  Gaunt ;   Richard  seizes  his 

estate,  1399. 

The  Duke  of  Hereford  (now  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster)   returns   to    England,  claims   his 

estate  and  the  crown,  ^99. 
Richard   deposed    (and,    later,    murdered), 

1399. 
*Parliament  sets  aside  the  order  of  succession 

and  chooses  Henry  king,  1399. 

VIII.    THE   LANCASTRIAN   PERIOD 
(RED   ROSE),   1399-1461. 

Henry  IV.,  1399. 

Complete  plate  armor,  1400? 
Rebellion  of  Glendower,  1400. 
Fortescue  writes  on  government,  1400? 
*First  statute  punishing  heretics  with  death, 

1401. 
First    martyr   (William    Sawtre)   under   the 

new  law),  1401. 
Revolt  of  the  Percies;  battle  of  Shrewsbury, 

1403. 
*The  House  of  Commons  obtains  the  exclusive 

right  to  make  grants  of  money,  1407. 
Henry  V.,  1413. 
*Statutes  to  be  made  by  Parliament  without 

alteration  by  the  king,  1414. 
Lollard  conspiracies,  1414-1415. 
*Battle  of  Agincourt,  1415. 
*Treaty  of  Troyes,  1420. 
Henry  VI.,  1422  (crowned  king  of  England 

and  France). 
Dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester  Protectors 

during  the  king's  minority,  1422. 
The  Paston  Letters,  1424-1509. 
Siege  of  Orleans,  1428. 
*County  suffrage  restricted,  1430. 
Joan  of  Arc  burned,  1431. 
Title  of  Viscount  created,  1440. 
*Cade's  insurrection,  1450. 
*End  of  the   Hundred   Years'  War;    loss  of 

France,  1453  (see  1338). 
*Wars  of  the  Roses,  1455-1485. 
Henry  dethroned,  1461. 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


395 


IX.  THE  YORKIST  PERIOD  (WHITE 

ROSE),  1461-1485. 

Edward  IV.,  1461. 

Henry  (the  late  king)  captured  and  im- 
prisoned, 1465. 

Warwick,  "  the  king-maker,"  restores  Henry 
VI.,  1470. 

Queen  Margaret's  son  killed  at  Tewksbury 
and  the  queen  imprisoned,  1471. 

Henry  dies  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower,  1471. 

Edward  exacts  "benevolences,"  1475. 

Queen  Margaret  ransomed  and  leaves  Eng- 
land, 1476. 
*Caxton   prints   the    first   book   in   England, 

J477- 

Edward  V.,  1483. 
Richard,    Duke    of    Gloucester,    appointed 

Protector,  1483. 

Murders  Edward  in  the  Tower  (?),  1483. 
Richard  HI.,  1483. 
Suppresses  rebellion,  1483. 
College  of  Heralds  established,  1483. 
Benevolences  abolished,  1484  (see  1475). 
*Battle  of  Bosworth  Field,  1485. 

X.  THE  TUDOR  PERIOD,  1485-1603. 

Henry  VII.,  1485. 

Sovereigns  first  coined,  1485? 

Henry  marries  Elizabeth  of  York,  thus  unit- 
ing the  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York, 
1486. 

Court  of  Star-Chamber,  1487. 

The  Pretenders  Simnel  and  Warbeck,  1487 
and  1492. 

Statutes  of  Livery  and  Maintenance  enforced 
by  Empson  and  Dudley,  1487. 

Poynings'  Act  (puts  an  end  to  the  legisla- 
tive power  of  the  English  colony  in  Ire- 
land), 1494. 

The  Great   Intercourse    (commercial   treaty 
between  England  and  the  Netherlands), 
1496. 
*The  Cabots  discover  the  American  continent, 

1497. 

*Beginning  of  "the  New  Learning"  (Colet, 
Erasmus,  More),  1499. 

Henry  V\II.,  1509. 

Colet  founds  St.  Paul's  School,  1512. 

Battle  of  Flodden,  1513. 

Wolsey  becomes  cardinal  and  lord  chancel- 
lor, 1515. 

More  writes  "  Utopia,"  1516. 

Rude  firearms  begin  to  come  into  use,  1517? 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  1520. 


The  Pope  confers  on  Henry  the  title  of  "  De- 
fender of  the  Faith,"  1521. 

Tyndall  and  Coverdale  translate  the  Bible, 
1525-30. 

Henry  begins  divorce  suit  against  Catharine 
of  Aragon,  1528. 

Fall  of  Wolsey,  1529. 

Cranmer  obtains  the  opinions  of  the  Univer- 
sities, 1530. 

Clergy  compelled  to  acknowledge  Henry  the 
Head  of  the  English  Church,  1531. 

Appeals  to  Rome  forbidden,  1532. 

Henry  privately  marries  Anne  Boleyn,  1532. 

Cranmer  pronounces  Henry's  marriage  with 
Catharine  void,  1533. 

London  paved,  1533? 

Payment  of  "annates"  to  Rome  forbidden, 
1534- 

The  authority  of  the  Pope  in  England  abol- 
ished, 1534. 

*Act  of  Supremacy  declares  the  king  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church  of  England,  1535. 

Fisher  and  More  executed,  1535. 

Pope   threatens    to  excommunicate   Henry, 
1535- 

Cromwell  comes  to  power,  1535. 

England  and  Wales  finally  united,  1536. 

Benefit  of  clergy  restricted,  1536. 
*Dissolution  of  the  monasteries  begins,  1536. 

Much  distress   among  the  poor;    great  in- 
crease of  vagrants,  1536? 

The    Bible    translated    and    placed    in    the 
churches,  1536. 

Stringent  vagrant  laws,  1536? 

Insurrection   in  the  North  ("  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace"),  1536. 

Many  new  nobles  created,  1536? 

Parish  registers  begin,  1538. 

The  king's  Proclamations  to  have  the  force 
of  law,  1539  (repealed,  1547). 

The  abbots  cease  to  sit   in  the   House  of 
Lords,  1539. 

The  Six  Articles,  1539. 

Cromwell  executed,  1540. 

Hall's  Chronicle,  1540? 

Statute    punishing    witchcraft    with    death, 
1541. 

First  cannon  cast  in  England,  1543. 

Edward  VI.,  1547. 

Duke  of   Somerset  made  Protector  during 
Edward's  minority,  1547. 

Bethlehem   Hospital   (first  for   the  insane), 

1547- 

Battle  of  Pinkie,  1547. 
Trades-unions  formed,  1548? 
First  English  Prayer-Book,  1549. 


396 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Latimer  preaches,  1549. 

*Act    of    Uniformity    (virtually    establishes 
Protestantism),  1549. 

First  Huguenot  emigration  to  England,  1550? 

The  Forty-Two  Articles  of  Religion  (after- 
ward reduced  to  thirty-nine),  1552. 

Second     Act    of  Uniformity,    and     Second 
Prayer-Book,  1552. 

Great   seizure    of   unenclosed  lands  by  the 

nobles,  1552? 

*Many  Protestant  grammar  schools  and  several 
hospitals  founded  by  the  king,  1552-3. 

Mary,  1553. 

Lady  Jane  Grey  proclaimed  queen,  1553. 

Edward's   laws,   establishing   Protestantism, 
repealed,  1553. 

Wyatt's  rebellion,  1554. 

Lady  Jane  Grey  executed,  1554. 

Mary  marries  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  1554. 

Statutes  against  the   Pope   (since  1529)   re- 
pealed; Catholicism  re-established,  1554. 

Coaches  introduced  into  England,  1555? 

Severe  persecution  of  the  Protestants  (Cran- 
mer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer  burned) ,  1555-6. 

Watches  begin  to  come  into  use  in  England, 

iS57? 

Loss  of  Calais,  1558. 
Elizabeth,  1558. 
Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity  re-enacted 

(Protestantism  restored),  1559. 
Glass  manufactured  in  England,  1559? 
John  Knox  preaches  in  Edinburgh,  1559. 
Hawkins  begins  the  slave  trade,  1562. 
The  Thirty-Nine  Articles  established,  1563. 
Insurrections  in  behalf  of  Romanism,  1569. 
Ascham    publishes    "  The    Schoolmaster," 

15701 
The  English  Puritans  begin  to  be  prominent, 

iS7I? 

Holinshed's  Chronicle,  1577. 
Drake  sails  round  the  globe,  1577. 
Lyly  publishes  his  "  Euphues,"  1579. 
Manufacture  of  paper  in  England,  1580? 
Jesuit  missionaries  land  in  England,  1580. 
High  Commission  Court  established,  1583. 
Raleigh  attempts  to  colonize  Virginia,  1584. 
*Shakespeare   at   the   Blackfriars  and   Globe 

Theatres  in  London,  1586? 
Raleigh  introduces  tobacco,  1586? 
Raleigh  introduces  the  potato  into  Ireland, 

1586? 

Execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  1587. 
*Defeat  of  the  Armada,  1588. 
Spenser  publishes    "The   Faerie   Queene," 

1590. 
Sidney  writes  hit  "  Arcadia,"  1590? 


Marlowe  and  Jonson  write,  1590? 

Hooker  writes,  1594? 

Establishment  of  the  East  India  Company, 

1600. 

First  regular  Poor-Law,  1601. 
Completion  of  the  conquest  of  Ireland,  1603. 

XI.    THE    STUART   PERIOD  (FIRST 
PART),  1603-1649. 

James  I.,  1603  (king  of  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land). 

The  Millenary  Petition,  1603. 

Plot  against  the  king;  Raleigh  imprisoned, 
1603. 

New  laws  punishing  witchcraft,  1603? 

Hampton  Court  Conference,  1604. 

James  proclaims  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings, 
1604? 

Right  of  the  Commons  to  control  their  elec- 
tions established,  1604. 

The  Gunpowder  Plot,  1605. 

Severe  laws  against  the  Catholics,  1606. 
*Colony  founded  at  Jamestown, Virginia,  1607. 

The  Baptists  establish  a  society  in  London, 
1608? 

Protestant  colonies  planted  in  Ulster,  Ireland, 
1610. 

James  creates  baronets,  1611. 
*Authorized  translation  of   the    Bible    com- 
pleted, 1611. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher  write,  1613? 

Execution  of  Raleigh,  1618. 

Post-office  regularly  established  throughout 

the  country,  1619? 

*Bacon  publishes  his  New  System  of  Phil- 
osophy, 1620. 
*Harvey  discovers  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 

1620. 

*The  Pilgrims  land  at  Plymouth,  New  Eng- 
land, 1620. 

Massinger  writes,  1620. 

Impeachment  of  Lord  Bacon,  1621. 

The  Commons  protest  against  the  king's 
violation  of  their  liberties,  1621. 

James  tears  up  the  protest,  1621. 

Imprisons  members  of  Parliament,  1622. 
*First  regular  newspaper  in  England,  1622. 

First  patent  for  inventions  granted,  1623? 

Right  of  sanctuary  abolished,  1624. 

Charles  I.,  1625. 

Italian  architecture  begins  in  England,  1625? 

Parliament  demands  reforms,  and  refuses 
grants  of  money  unless  they  are  conceded, 
1625. 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


397 


Hackney  coaches  introduced,  1625? 

Coal  comes  into  general  use,  1625? 

Sir  John  Eliot  sent  to  the  Tower,  1626. 

The  king  raises  money  illegally,  1626. 

John   Hampden   imprisoned  for  refusing  to 

lend  money  to  the  king,  1627. 
The  Petition  of  Right,  1628. 

Wentworth  (Strafford)  and  Laud  with  the 
policy  of  "  Thorough,"  1635. 

Sedan  chairs  come  into  use,  1635? 

Hampden  refuses  to  pay  ship-money,  1637. 

The  king  tries  to  force  a  liturgy  on  the  Scot- 
tish Church,  1637. 

Scottish  National  Covenant  (to  maintain  Pres- 

byterianism)  adopted,  1638. 
*The  Long  Parliament  meet^  1640. 

Torture  last  used  in  England,  1640? 

Laud  imprisoned  (later  executed),  1640. 

Baker  publishes  his  Chronicle,  1641. 

Execution  of  Strafford,  1641. 

The  Triennial  Act  (for  summoning  a  new 
Parliament  every  three  years),  1641. 

Parliament  resolves  not  to  be  adjourned  or 
dissolved  except  by  its  own  consent, 
1641. 

Abolishes  the  Star-Chamber  and  High  Com- 
mission Courts,  1641. 

Passes  statutes  against  ship-money  and  other 
illegal  measures  of  the  king,  1641. 

The  Grand  Remonstrance,  1641. 

Hobbes  writes,  1642? 

The  king  attempts  to  seize  the  five  members, 

1642. 

*Beginning  of  the  Civil  War  (battle  of  Edge- 
hill),  1642. 

Cromwell  organizes  his  "  Ironsides,"  1642. 
*The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  1643. 

The  Excise  Act,  1643. 

The  Independents  become  prominent,  1643? 

The  Westminster  Assembly  of  Diviues 
(draws  up  the  Presbyterian  creed,  etc.), 
'643-7. 

Stringent  restrictions  on  the  Press,  1644. 

Milton's  Areopagitica,  1644. 

Battle  of  Marston  Moor,  1644. 

The  Self-Denying  Ordinance,  1645. 

The  "  New  Model  "  army,  1645. 

Battle  of  Naseby,  1645. 

Charles  a  prisoner,  1647. 

Charles  makes  a  secret  treaty  with  the  Scots, 
1647. 

Royalist  revolt,  1648. 

Pride's  Purge,  1648. 

The  Rump  Parliament,  1648. 
'Execution  of  the  king,  1649. 


XII.  THE  COMMONWEALTH  AND  PRO 

TECTORATE  PERIOD,  1649-1660. 

House  of  Lords  abolished,  1649;  meets  next, 
1660. 

The  Commonwealth,  or  Republic,  declared, 
1649. 

Charles  II.  proclaimed  king  in  Scotland,  1649. 

Many  Cavaliers  emigrate  to  Virginia,  1649? 

Cromwell's  campaign  in  Ireland,  1649-50. 

Rise  of  the  Quakers,  1650? 

Iron  (and  other  metal)  rolling-mills,  1650? 

Battle  of  Dunbar,  1650. 

Cotton  begins  to  be  largely  imported,  1650? 

Battle  of  Worcester  (flight  of  Charles  II.), 
1651. 

The    Navigation   Act    (modified,    1823;    re- 
pealed, 1849),  1651. 

War  with  the  Dutch,  1652. 

Coffee-houses  opened,  1652? 

Izaak  Walton's  "  Complete  Angler,"  1653. 

Cromwell  expels  Parliament,  1653. 

"  Barebone's  Parliament,"  1653. 

The  Instrument  of  Government,  1653. 
*Cromwell,   Protector,  1653. 

War  with  Spain,  1655. 

England   divided    into  eleven    military   dis- 
tricts, 1655. 

The  Humble  Petition  and  Advice,  1657. 

Richard  Cromwell,  Protector,  1658. 

Fuller's  Church  History,  1658. 

The  army  compels  Richard  to  abdicate,  1659. 

General   Monk  calls  a   "  Free  Parliament," 
1660. 

Charles  II.  sends  the  Declaration  of  Breda, 

1660. 

*The  Convention  Parliament  invites  Charles 
II.  to  return,  1660. 

XIII.  THE  STUART  PERIOD  (SECOND 

PART),  1660-1714. 

Charles  II.,  1660. 

Standing  army  established,  1660. 

Regicides  executed,  1660. 

Board  of  Trade  organized,  1660. 

Feudal  dues  and  services  abolished,  1660. 

Tea  introduced,  1660? 

Corporation  Act,  1661  (repealed,  1828). 

Act  of  Uniformity  re-enacted,  1662. 

Presbyterian  clergy  driven  out,  1662. 

Press  licensing  act,  1662  (see  1695). 

Royal  Society  founded  in  London,  1662. 

Butler  writes  "  Hudibras,"  1663. 

Hearth  Tax,  1663  (repealed,  1689). 


398 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Convocation    surrenders    its    right    of   self- 
taxation,  1663. 

Conventicle  Act,  1664. 

Repeal  of  Triennial  Act,  1664  (see  1641). 

Seizure  of  New   Amsterdam   (New  York), 
1664. 

War  with  the  Dutch,  1665. 

The  Plague  in  London,  1665. 

The  Five-Mile  Act,  1665. 

Great  fire  of  London,  1666. 

The  Dutch  sail  up  the  Thames,  1667. 

The  Cabal  comes  into  power,  1667. 

Milton  publishes  "  Paradise  Lost,"  1667. 
*Secret  Treaty  of  Dover,  1670. 

Bunyan  writes  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  1670. 

Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion,  1670? 

The  king  robs  the  Exchequer,  1672. 

Declaration  of  Indulgence,  1672. 

The  Test  Act,  1673  (repealed,  1828). 

Wren  begins  to  rebuild   St.  Paul's  (Italian 

style),  1675. 

*The  so-called  Popish  Plot,  1678. 
*The  Disabling  Act  (excludes  Catholics), 1678. 
*The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  passed,  1679. 

The  Exclusion  Bill  introduced,  1679. 
*Rise  of  Whigs  and  Tories,  1680? 

Dryden  writes  "  Absalom  and  Achitophel," 
1681. 

The  Rye  House  Plot,  1683. 

Execution  of  Russell  and  Sydney,  1683. 

Town  charters  revoked,  1684. 

New  England  charters  revoked,  1684. 

James  II.,  1685. 

Monmouth's  rebellion ;   Battle  of  Sedgemoor, 
1685. 

The  Bloody  Assizes,  1685. 

Many  Huguenots  settle  in  England,  1685. 

Huguenots   begin  silk  manufacture  in  Eng- 
land, 1685? 

*Newton  demonstrates  the  law  of  gravitation, 
1687. 

Tyrconnel  made   Lord   Deputy  of  Ireland, 
1687. 

"  Lilli  Burlero,"  1687. 

Expulsion  of  the  Fellows  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, 1687. 

Declaration  of  Indulgence,  1687-8. 

Imprisonment  of  the   Seven   Bishops;    trial 
and  acquittal,  1688. 

Birth    of   Prince   James,   "  the   Pretender," 
1688. 

William  of  Orange  invited  to  England,  1688. 

Arrival  of  William;  his  Declaration,  1688. 

Flight  of  James,  1688. 

The  Convention  Parliament,  1689. 

The  Declaration  of  Right,  1689. 


William  and  Mary  (Orange-Stuart), 
1689. 

Grand  Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.,  1689. 

Jacobite  rebellion  in  Scotland  (Killiecrankie), 
1689. 

The  bayonet  begins  to  be  used,  1689? 

Siege  of  Londonderry,  1689. 
*Mutiny  Bill  passes,  1689. 
*Toleration  Act,  1689. 
*Bill  of  Rights,  1689. 

Secession  of  the  non-jurors,  1689. 

Act  of  Grace,  1690. 

Battle  of  Beachy  Head,  1690. 
*Battle  of  the  Boyne,  1690. 

Chelsea  army  hospital,  1690. 

Treaty  of  Limerick,  1691. 

Severe  laws  against  Irish  Catholics,  1692. 

Massacre  of  Glencoe,  1692. 

Lord  Churchill  (Duke  of  Marlborough)  de- 
prived of  office,  1692. 

Battle  of  La  Hogue,  1692. 

Flint-lock  muskets  come  into  use,  1692? 
*Beginning  of  the  national  debt,  1693. 
*Bank  of  England  established,  1694. 

Tax  on  paper,  1694  (repealed,  1861). 

Death  of  Queen  Mary,  1694. 

Triennial  Act  restored,  1694  (see  1664). 
*The  press  made  free,  1695. 

Greenwich  Hospital,  for  seamen,  established, 
1696. 

Window  tax  imposed,  1696  (see  1851). 

Trials  for  Treason  Act  (reforms  political 
trials),  1696. 

Peace  of  Ryswick,  1697. 

The  Partition  Treaties  (an  attempt  to  settle 
the  question  of  the  Spanish  Succession), 
1698  and  1700. 

London  clubs  begin,  1700? 

Severe  Act  against  Roman  Catholics,  1700 

(repealed,  1778). 
*Act  of  Settlement,  1701. 

Abjuration  Act,  1702. 

Anne,  1702  (last  of  the  Stuart  sovereigns). 

War  with  France,  1702. 

Great  power  of  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough , 
1702. 

Judges  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior, 
1702. 

High  and  Low  Church  parties,  1703. 

First  daily  newspaper  in  England,  1703. 
*Battle  of  Blenheim,  1704. 
*Gibraltar  taken,  1704. 

John  Locke  dies,  1704. 

Battle  of  Ramillies,  1706. 

*Union    of    England    and    Scotland    (Great 
Britain),  1707. 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


399 


Union  Jack  adopted,  1707. 

Mrs.  Masham  comes  into  power,  1710. 

Trial  of  Dr.  Sacheverell,  1710. 

Marlborough  disgraced,  1711. 

Property  qualification  for  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  established,  1711  (re- 
pealed, 1858). 

Act  against  Occasional  Conformity,  1711  (re- 
pealed, 1718). 

Addison  writes  for  the  "  Spectator,"  1711. 

Pope  writes,  1712. 

Newcomen    invents    his   steam-engine    (for 

pumping  mines),  1712. 
*Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713. 

The  Schism  Act,  1714  (repealed,  1718). 

XIV.  THE  HANOVERIAN  PERIOD, 
1714  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

George  I.,  1714. 

Jacobite  rebellion  in  Scotland,  in  favor  of  the 

Old  Pretender,  1715. 
Septennial  Act,  1716. 
Convocation  suspended,  1717-1850. 
Repeal  of  Occasional  Conformity,  1718  (see 

1711). 
The  Triple   and   Quadruple   Alliance,  1717, 

1718. 

De  Foe  vrites  ''  Robinson  Crusoe,"  1719- 
*The  South  Sea  Bubble,  1720. 
Inoculation  for  small-pox  introduced,  1721. 
Sir    Robert   Walpole    first    prime    minister, 

1721. 

*Modern  cabinet  system  begins,  1721. 
Swift  writes  "  Gulliver's  Travels,"  1726. 
War  with  Austria  and  Spain,  1727. 
George  II.,  1727. 

Laws  punishing  witchcraft  with  death  re- 
pealed, 1736. 

Bishop  Butler  writes  his  "  Analogy,"  1736. 
John  Wesley — Rise  of  the  Methodists,  1738. 
Hogarth's  pictures,  1738? 
War  of  "  Jenkins's  Ear,"  1739. 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  1741. 
The  Place  Act  (limits  the  number  of  offices 

to  be   held  by  members   of  Parliament), 

1742. 

Battle  of  Dettingen,  1743. 
Jacobite  rebellion  in  Scotland,  in  favor  of  the 

Young  Pretender,  1745. 
The  Pretender  defeated  at  Culloden,  1746. 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1748. 
Fielding  writes  "  Tom  Jones,"  1749. 
Gray's  Elegy,  1751. 
Clive  takes  Arcot,  1751. 
Introduction  of  the  New  Style,  1752. 


British  Museum  founded,  1753. 

Hume  begins  his  History  of  England,  1754. 

Seven  Years'  War  with  France,  1756. 

"  The  Black  Hole  "  of  Calcutta,  1756. 
*Clive  wins  the  battle  of  Plassey ;  foundation 

of  England's  Indian  empire,  1757- 
*Victory    of   Quebec,    1759    (England    gains 
Canada) . 

George  III.,  1760. 

Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and  Sterne  write,  1760' 

Wedgewood  establishes  his  potteries,  1760. 

Bribery  Act   (to  punish   bribery  of  voters), 
1762. 

Canada  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  1763. 

Wilkes    attacks    the    government    ("  North 
Briton  "),  1763. 

Hargreaves  invents  the  spinning-jenny,  1764. 
*Stamp  Act,  1765  (repealed,  1766). 

Blackstone's  Commentaries,  1765. 
*Watt's  steam-engine,  1765. 

Arkwright's  spinning-machine,  1768. 

Letters  of  "  Junius,"  1769. 

Umbrellas  introduced,  1770? 
*Debates   in   Parliament    regularly    reported, 
1771. 

Pressing  to  death  abolished,  1772. 

Royal  Marriage  Act,  1772. 
*"  The  Boston  Tea  Party,"  1773. 

The  four  "  Intolerable  Acts,"  1774. 
*Prison  reforms  by  John  Howard,  1774. 

Priestley  discovers  oxygen  gas,  1774. 

The  American  Revolution  begins,  1775- 
*Declaration  of  American  Independence,  1776. 

Gibbon  begins  his  History  of  Rome,  1776. 

Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations,"  1776. 

Roman  Catholic  Relief  Act  (repeals  Act  of 
1700),  1778. 

Act     relieving     Dissenting     ministers     and 
schoolmasters,  1779. 

Free  trade  granted  to  Ireland,  1780. 

Jeremy  Bentham  writes,  1780? 

Ducking-stool  last  used,  1780? 

Robert  Raikes  opens  Sunday-schools,  1780? 

Lord  George  Gordon  riots,  1780. 

Defeat  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  1781. 

Poynings'  Law  repealed,  1782  (see  1494). 

Great  improvement   in   the   manufacture   ol 
iron  (puddling),  1784? 

Treaties  of  Paris  and  Versailles,  1783. 
*Recognition    of   the    independence    of    the 

United  States,  1783. 
*Mail  coaches  established,  1784. 

Board  of  Control  for  India,  1784. 

The  London  "  Times  "  established,  1785. 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  1786. 

West  Africa  colonized,  1787? 


40O 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Gainsborough  dies,  1788. 

Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion," 1790. 

Robert  Burns  writes,  1790? 

Formation  of  the  "  United  Irishmen,"  1792. 

Sir  J.  Reynolds  dies,  1792. 

War  with  France,  1793. 

Fire-engine  patented,  1793. 

Bank  of  England  suspends  payment,  1797. 

Battle  of  the  Nile,  1798. 
*Vaccination  introduced,  1799? 

Reform  in  care  of  the  insane,  1800? 
*Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1800. 

First  Census  of  Great  Britain,  1801. 

Colonization  of  Australia,  1802. 

Paley's  "  Natural  Theology,"  1803. 

Malthus  writes  on  Population,  1803. 

Chimney-sweeping  machine,  1805. 
*Battle  of  Trafalgar,  1805. 

Abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  1807. 

Many  trades-unions  formed,  1807? 

The  Orders  in  Council,  1807. 

The  Peninsula  War,  1808-14. 

Luddite  riots,  1811. 

George  III.  becomes  insane ;  Prince  of  Wales 
appointed  regent,  1811. 

Dissenters'  Relief  Bill,  1812. 

Debtors'    Act    (releases    "poor    debtors"), 

1812. 

*First  steamboat  in  Great  Britain,  1812. 
*Second  War  with  America,  1812. 

Sheridan  and  Coleridge,  1812? 

Toleration  granted  to  Unitarians,  1813. 

Walter  Scott's  "  Waverley  Novels,"  1814. 

London  lighted  with  gas.  1815? 

Davy  invents  the  miner's  safety-lamp,  1815. 
*Battle  of  Waterloo,  1815. 

South  Africa  acquired,  1815. 

Wager  of  battle  abolished,  1819. 

Macadamized  roads,  1819? 

The  Six  Acts  (relating  to  seditious  meetings, 

etc.),  1819. 
*First  Atlantic  steamship,  1819. 

George  IV.,  1820. 

Bill  for  the  queen's  divorce,  1820. 

Byron,  Shelley,  Wordsworth,  Scott,  Southey, 
Lamb,  Moore,  1820? 

Cabs  introduced,  1822. 

Society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals, 1824. 

Capital  punishment  greatly  restricted,  1824. 

First  temperance  society,  1826. 

Flaxman,  the  sculptor,  dies,  1826. 

Benefit  of  clergy  abolished,  1827. 
*Repeal   of  the  Corporation  Act,  1828,  (see 
1661). 


*Repeal  of  the  Test  Act,  1828  (see  1673). 
*Catholic  emancipation  (repeals  act  of  1678), 
1829. 

Irish  property  qualification  for  franchise  in- 
creased, 1829. 

Omnibuses  introduced,  1829. 
*Friction  matches,  1829? 

The  new  police,  1829. 

William  IV.,  1830. 

Stephenson  invents  the  first  successful  loco- 
motive (the  "  Rocket"),  1830. 
*Opening   of  the   Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway,  1830. 

Cobbett  edits  the  Political  Register,  1830? 

First  iron  vessels  built,  1830? 
*Passage  of  the  Reform  Bill,  1832. 

Party  names  of  Liberal  and  Conservative  be- 
gin to  come  into  use,  1832. 
*Emancipation  of  slaves  in  British  colonies, 
1833. 

First  Factory  Act  (regulates  the  employment 
of  women  and  children),  1833. 

East  India  trade  thrown  open,  1833. 

New  Poor-Law,  1834. 

Government  grant  to  "  British  "  and  "  Na- 
tional "  (Dissenting  and  Church  of  Eng- 
land) schools,  1834. 

Municipal  Corporation  Act,  1835. 

All  trades  in  towns  declared  free,  1835. 

Virtual  abolition  of  the  Press  Gang,  1835. 

Civil  Marriage  Act  (permits  Dissenters  to  be 
married  in  their  own  chapels),  1836. 

Commutation  of  Tithes  Act,  1836. 

Sydney  Smith  writes. 

Victoria,  1837. 

Criminal  law  reforms,  1837. 

Abolition  of  the  pillory,  1837. 

The  electric  telegraph  in  England,  1838? 

The  Opium  War,  1839. 

Union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  1840. 

National  Sanitary  Commission,  1840,  1843. 
*Penny  postage  established,  1840. 

Photography  introduced,  1841? 

Privilege  of  peerage  (equivalent  to  benefit  of 
clergy)  abolished,  1841. 

Chimney  Sweep  Act  (forbids  employment  of 
children),  1842. 

China  compelled  to  open  a  number  of  ports 

to  trade,  1842. 

*Grove  discovers  the  lav/  of  the  indestructi- 
bility of  force,  1842. 

Percussion-lock  muskets  adopted,  1842. 

Thames  Tunnel  completed,  1842. 

Revolvers  introduced,  1845? 

India  rubber  begins  to  be  extensively  used, 
1845? 


PRINCIPAL    DATES    IN    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


4OI 


Jews  admitted  to  municipal  offices,  1846. 
•Famine  in  Ireland,  1846. 

Railway  speculation  and  panic,  1846. 
*Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws;  beginning  of  free 

trade,  1846  (see  1360). 
*Ether  begins  to  be  used  in  surgery,  1846. 

Sewing-machines,  1846? 

Government  grants  $50,000,000  for  relief  of 
the  Irish  famine,  1847. 

Chartist  agitation,  1848. 

First  government  board  of  health,  1848. 

Repeal  of   the  Navigation   Act,    1849    (see 

1651). 
*First  "  World's  Fair,"  1851. 

Reaping  and  mowing  machines,  1851? 

Repeal  of  window  tax,  1851  (see  1696). 

Tenement  House  Act  (one  of  a  series  for 
relief  of  working  classes),  1851. 

Colonization  of  New  Zealand,  1852. 

Reform  of  Court  of  Chancery  begins,  1852. 

The  Crimean  War,  1854. 

Hallam,  Macaulay,  Arnold,  Froude,  Free- 
man, Carlyle,  Thackeray,  Bronte,  Dick- 
ens, "George  Eliot,"  Mill,  Darwin, 
Spencer,  Faraday,  Tyndall,  Huxley, 
Ruskin,  Tennyson,  Browning,  1855? 

First  large  iron  steamer  built,  1855? 

Abolition  of  the  newspaper  tax,  1855. 
*Rise  of  cheap  newspapers,  1855. 

Bessemer's  iron  and  steel  process,  1856. 

Right  of  search  abandoned,  1856. 

The  Indian  Mutiny,  1857. 

Sovereignty  of  India  given  to  the  crown,  1858. 
*First  Atlantic  cable,  1858;  relaid,  1866. 
*Jews  admitted  to  Parliament,  1858. 

Abolition  of  property  qualification  for  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  1858  (see  1711). 
*Darwin  publishes  "  The  Origin  of  Species," 
1859. 

Flogging  virtually  abolished  in  the  army, 
1859. 

Weather  predictions  begin,  1860? 
*The  first  English  iron-clad  built,  1861. 

Imprisonment  for  debt  (except  fraudulent) 
abolished,  1861. 

England  recognizes  the  Confederates  as 
"  belligerents,"  1861. 

The  Trent  Affair,  1861. 

Repeal  of  the  paper  tax,  1861  (see  1694). 
*The  escape  of  the  Alabama,  1862. 
*Herbert  Spencer  publishes  his  "  First  Princi- 
ples," setting  forth  the  philosophy  of  Evo- 
lution, 1862. 

London  underground  railway  opened,  1863. 

Steam  fire  engines  introduced,  1863? 


*Reform  Act,  extending  the  franchise,  1867. 
Establishment  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 

1867. 

Compulsory  church  rates  abolished,  1868. 
Public  executions  abolished,  1868. 
*Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  branch  of  the 

Church  of  England,  1869. 
*  Woman     suffrage    (to     single    women    and 

widows  who  are  householders),  1869. 
*Government  ("  Board  ")  schools  established, 

1870. 

Street  railways,  1870? 

Women  allowed  to  vote  at  school-board  elec- 
tions and  serve  on  school  boards,  1870. 
Revision  and  consolidation  of  the  statutes, 

1870. 

*Civil  service  examinations  established,  1870. 
Married  Woman's  Property  Act,  1870,  1882. 
*First  Irish  Land  Bill,  1870. 
Purchase  of  commissions  in  the  army  abol- 
ished, 1871. 

Trades-unions  recognized,  1871,  1875. 
*Abolition  of  religious  tests  in  the  universi- 
ties, 1871. 

*The  Ballot  Act,  1872. 
*Joseph    Arch     organizes     the    Agricultural 

Union,  1872. 
*Geneva    Tribunal   (allows    damages  in  the 

Alabama  case),  1872. 
National  Federation  of  Employers,  1873. 
England  purchases  nearly  half  of  the  Suez 

Canal,  1875. 

The  queen  made  Empress  of  India,  1877. 
*Electric  lighting  in  London,  1878? 
*Telephone  introduced,  1878? 
The  Irish  Land  League,  1879. 
Anti-rent  agitation  in  Ireland,  1879. 
Boycotting  begins,  1880. 

Burial  Bill  (gives  Dissenters  right  to  bury  in 
public  churchyards  with  their  own   reli- 
gious services),  1880. 
Irish  Coercion  Act,  1881. 
Flogging  abolished  in  the  navy,  1881. 
*Second  Irish  Land  Act,  1881. 
Act  facilitating  free  trade  in  land,  1882. 
Suppression  of  the  Land  League,  1882. 
*Reform  of  Elections  Act,  1884. 
*Reform  Act  (extending  suffrage  to  counties), 

1884. 
*Over  2,500,000  new  voters   admitted   under 

Reform  Act  of  1884,  1885. 
First   "People's   Parliament"    (Peers,   549; 

H.  of  C.,  670),  1886. 
The  Queen's  Jubilee,  June  21,  1887. 
New  Irish  Crimes  Act,  1887. 


402  DESCENT   OF  THE   ENGLISH   SOVEREIGNS  FROM 
EGBERT  TO   QUEEN   VICTORIA.* 


i.  Egbert  (descended  from  Cerdic,  495)  first  "  King  of  the  English,"  828-837. 
2.  Kthelvulf ,  837-858. 


3.  Ethelbald,      4.  Ethelbert,      5.  Ethelred  I.,     6.  Alfred, 

858-860.  860-866.  866-871.  871-001. 


I  *** 

7.  Edward  I.,  901-925.  15.  Sweyn,  the  Dane,  1013. 


8.  Ethelstan,     9 

925-940. 

1                          1 

.  Edmund,    10.  Edred, 

940-946.            946-955- 

17.  Canute, 

1017-1035. 

ii.  Edwin, 

955-959- 

12.  Edgar,                               18 

959-975- 

1                      *                    1 
Harold  I.,                 19.  Hardicanute, 

1035-1040.        Richard  I.,     1040-1042. 
Duke  of  Normandy. 
1 

13.  Edward  II., 

975-979- 

***                             1 
Elgiva,?  m.  14.  Ethelred  II., 

979-1016. 

m.  (2)  Emma.        Richard  II.,  Duke 
1    .              of  Normandy. 

16.  Edmund  II. 

(Ironside),  1016- 
1016. 

Edgar  Atheling, 
grandson  of  Edmund 
II.  [should  have  suc- 
ceeded Harold  II. 
(No.  ai)]. 

20.  Edward  III., 

the  Confessor,  1042-1066, 

Godwin,  Earl 
of  Kent. 

1 

second  cousin  oi  William     |                        • 
the  Conqueror,  m.  Edith.     2I-  Harold  II., 

1066-1066,  slain 
at  Hastings,  1066. 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy. 

THE  NORMAN  KINGS.    22.  William  the  Conqueror, 

,,%  This  sign  shows  that  the  person  over 
whose  name  it  stands  was  not  in  the  direct 
line  of  descent. 


1066-1087.     Second  cousin  of 

Edward  the  Confessor  (No.  20), 

m.  Matilda  of  Flanders,  a  direct 

descendant  of  Alfred  the  Great  (No.  6). 


23.  William  II., 

1087-1100. 


dela. 


1 24.  Henry  !•>    Ad 

1100-1135.  | 

|         25.  Stephen 

Maud,  or      ofBIois, 
Matilda,  m.   1135-1154. 
(2)  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet, 
Count  of  Anjou. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  ANJOU.      \?6.  Henry  II.,  1154-1189. 

27.  Richard  I.         Geoffrey.     28.  John  (Lackland), 
(Coeur  de  Lion),  H  1199-1216. 

1189-1199.  Arthur,  mur- 

dered by  John?    29.  Henry  III., 

1216-1272. 


30.  Edward  I.,  1272-1307. 

31.  Edward  II.,  1307-1327. 

•)2.  Ed  ward  III.,  1327-1377, 
m.  Philippa  of  Hainault. 


*  The  heavy  lines  indicate  the  Saxon  or  Early  English  and 
Norman  sovereigns  with  their  successors. 

f  Henry  I.  (No.  24)  married  Matilda  of  Scotland,  a  descend- 
ant of  Edmund  II.  (Ironside)  (No.  16). 

J  Henry  II.  m.  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  the  divorced  queen  of 
France,  thereby  acquiring  large  possessions  in  Southern  France. 


Edward,  the      Lionel,  D. 
Black  Prince,    of  Clarence. 


John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster. 


403 


Edmund  Langley, 
Duke  of  York. 


|  Edmund  Mortimer. 


Anne  Morti- 
mer, m.  -  - 


*  Richard  II.,  before  he  was  de- 
posed, had  named  Roger  Mortimer 
as  his  successor,  but  Roger  died 
before  the  king. 

t  Edmund  Mortimer,  son  of  Rog- 
er Mortimer,  stood  next  in  the  order 
of  succession  after  Richard  II.,  but 
his  claim  was  not  allowed.  He  died 
1424. 


whom.  (2)  Owen    fort(D.of     m.  Anne  Mor- 

I          Tudor.  Somerset.       timer.    (See 
3£  Henry        I  ,  dotted  line.) 

VI.,  1422—   Edmund  I  | 

1461,  m.    Tudor,  m.  Margaret 
Margaret     Earl  of     Beaufort.      Richard,  D. 
of  Anjou.      Rich-    [See  p.  163.]  of  York,  d. 

I  mond. 

Edward,  .  c 

Prince  of  *  See  P-  l63- 

Wales,  m.?  HOUSE  OF  YO'RK. 

Anne  Neville,  37.  Edward  39.  Rich- 

who  later  m.  IV.,  1461-      ard  III., 

Richard  III.  1483.          1483-1485, 

(No.  39).  ^_^__L_          m'  Anne 

HOUSE  OF  TUDOR.    S"""  "HI      Neville.** 

40.  Henry  VII.,  m.  Elizabeth    38.  Edward  V. 
\  1485-1509.         of  York.        (murdered  in 


41.  Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547, 
m.  i.  Catharine  of  Aragon,  2. 
Anne  Boleyn,  3.  Jane  Seymour, 
4,  Anne  of  Cleves,  5.  Catharine 
Howard,  6.  Catharine  Parr. 


Margaret  Tudor,         Mary,  m. 
m.  James  (Stuart)    Charles  Bran- 
IV.,  King  of  Scot-       don,  D.  of 


the  Tower  by 
chard  III.? 
1483-1483. 


43.  Mary  (d.  44.  Eliza 

of  i),  1553-1558,  beth  (d. 

m.  Philip  II.  of 2),  1558 
of  Spain. 


558- 
1603. 


42.  Edward 
VI.  (s.of3), 


land. 

James 
(Stuart)  V. 

§Mary 


Suffolk. 

Frances  Bran- 
don, m.  Henry 
Grey,  D.  of 
Suffolk. 


1547-1553.    Queen  of  Scots, 

beheaded  1587.     Lady  Jane  Grey, 

|  (m.  Lord  Dudley), 

HOUSE  OF  STUART.    45.  James  (Stuart)   beheaded  1554. 
I.  of  England, 
1603-1625. 


46.  Charles  I., 

1625-1649.11 


Elizabeth,  m.  Frederick,  Elector-Palatine. 
Sophia,  m.  the  Elector  of  Hanover. 


47.  Charles  48.  JamesII.,  Mary,  m.  William  II. 

II.,  1660-          1685-1688.  of  Orange. 

1685.  I  _  I 

~T~~"^™|         49.  William  III. 

49.  Mary,  50.  Anne,   James  (the     of  Ora.nJ.'.be- 


m.'william  1702-1714.'  Old  rretend-  ,^mef  Jfilliam          5»-  George  II.,  1727-1760, 


III.  of  Or- 
ange, afterward 
William  III.  of 
England. 


V^tU   •     A\.h*~llU-       ___  _T^  ,  - 

er) ,  b.  1688    II I .  of  England, 
d.  1765.  1689-1702. 

Charles  (the  Young  Pre- 
tender), b.  1720,  d.  1788. 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER. 

51.  George,  Elector  of 

Hanover,  became  George 

I.  of  England,  1714-1727. 

II. 


Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
(died  before  coming  to  the  throne). 


53-  George 


Ax.,, 


760-1820. 


54.  George   ss-Wll-     Edward. 
IV.,  1820-  liam  IV.,  Duke  of 

1830.        1830-1837.     Kent,  d. 
1820. 


t  Henry  VII.  (called  Henry  of  Richmond  and  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster) :  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth  of  York,  the  rival  claims 
of  the  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York  were  settled  and  the  House 
of  Tudor  began. 

§  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  stood  next  in  order  of  succession  after 

Mary  (No.  43),  provided  Henry  VIII. 's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon  (Mary's 
mother)  was  held  not  to  have  been  dissolved.  The  Pope  never  recognized  Henry's 
divorce  from  Catharine,  or  his  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  and  therefore  supported 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in  her  claim  to  the  English  crown  after  Mary's  (43)  death  m  1558. 

**  Richard  III.  (No.  39)  married  Anne  Neville,  widow?  of  Edward  Prince  of  Wales  (son  of  Henry 
VI.)  slain  at  Tewkesbury.  ft  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  1649-1660. 


56.  Victoria, 
1837- 


404 


LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 


A  SHORT  LIST  OF  BOOKS  ON   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

[The  *  marks  contemporary  or  early  history.] 


I.  THE  PREHISTORIC  PERIOD. 

Dawkins's  Early  Man  in  Britain. 

Geikie's  Prehistoric  Europe. 

Keary's  Dawn  of  History. 

Wright's  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the 
Saxon. 

Elton's  Origins  of  English  History. 

Rhys's  Celtic  Britain. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  Chronicle  (legend- 
ary). 

Geikie's  Influence  of  Geology  on  English 
History,  in  Macmillan's  Magazine,  1882. 

II.  THE  ROMAN  PERIOD,  55,  54  B.C.; 
43-410  A.D. 

*Csesar's   Commentaries   on    the   Gallic  War 

(Books  IV.  and  V.,  chiefly  55,  54  B.C.). 
*Tacitus's  Agricola  and  Annals  (chiefly  from 

78-84). 

*Gildas's  History  of  Britain  (whole  period). 
*Bede's    Ecclesiastical    History    of    Britain 

(whole  period). 
Wright's   The   Celt,   the    Roman,   and    the 

Saxon. 

Elton's  Origins  of  English  History. 
Pearson's   England   during    the    Early    and 

Middle  Ages. 
1  Scarth's  Roman  Britain. 

HI.  THE  SAXON,  OR  EARLY  ENGLISH, 
PERIOD,  449-1066.   . 

*The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  (whole  period). 

*Gildas's  History  of  Britain  (Roman  Con- 
quest to  560). 

*Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Britain 
(earliest  times  to  731). 

*Nennius's  History  of  Britain  (earliest  times 
to  642). 

*Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  Chronicle  (legend- 
ary) (earliest  times  10689). 

*Asser!s  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great. 


Elton's  Origins  of  English  History. 

Pauli's  Life  of  Alfred. 

Green's  Making  of  England. 

Green's  Conquest  of  England. 

Freeman's  Norman  Conquest,  vols.  I. -II. 

Lappenberg's  England  under  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Kings. 

Pearson's  History  of  England  during  the 
Early  and  Middle  Ages. 

Pearson's  Historical  Atlas.    • 

Freeman's  Origin  of  the  English  Nation. 

Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

Taine's  History  of  English  Literature. 

Church's  Beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

2Armitage's  Childhood  of  the  English  Na- 
tion. 

2  Grant  Allen's  Anglo-Saxon  Britain. 

-  York-Powell's  Early  England. 

-  Freeman's  Early  English  History. 

IV.    THE    NORMAN    PERIOD,    1066- 
"54- 

*The  Anglo-Saxon   Chronicle  (Peterborough 

continuation)  (whole  period) . 
*Ordericus  Vitalis's  Ecclesiastical  History  (to 

"40- 
*Wace's  Roman  de  Rou  (Taylor's  translation) 

(to  1106). 
*Bruce's   Bayeux  Tapestry  Elucidated  (with 

plates) . 
*William    of    Malmesbury's    Chronicle    (to 

1142). 

*  Roger  of  Hoveden's  Chronicle  (whole  period). 
Freeman's  Norman  Conquest. 
Church's  Life  of  Anselm. 
Taine's  History  of  English  Literature. 
Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 
2  Freeman's   Short   History   of  the  Norman 

Conquest. 

2  Armitage's  Childhood  of  the  English  Nation. 
2  Johnson's  Normans  in  Europe. 
2  Creighton's  England  a  Continental  Power. 


1  The  best  short  history. 


2  The  four  best  short  histories. 


BOOKS    ON    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


405 


V.    THE    ANGEVIN    PERIOD,    1154- 
1399- 

"Matthew  Paris's  Chronicle  (1067-1253). 

Richard  of  Devizes*  Chronicle  (1189-1191). 
*Froissart's  Chronicles  (1325-1400). 
Walsingham's    Historia   Brevis    (1272-1422) 

(not  translated). 
*Jocelin  of  Brakelonde's  Chronicle  (i  173-1202) 

(see   Carlyle's   Past    and    Present,  Book 

II.). 

Norgate's  Angevin  Kings. 
Taine's  History  of  English  Literature. 
Anstey's  William  of  Wykeham. 
Pearson's  England  in  the  Early  and  Middle 

Ages. 

Maurice's  Stephen  Langton. 
Creighton's  Life  of  Simon  de  Montfort. 
Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 
Bemont's  Vie  de  Simon  de  Montfort. 
Gairdner  and  Spedding's  Studies  in  English 

History  (the  Lollards). 
Knight's  Life  of  Caxton. 
Seebohm's  Essay  on  the  Black  Death  (Fort- 
nightly Review,  1865). 
Maurice's  Wat  Tyler,  et  al. 
Charles's  Vie  de  Roger  Bacon. 
Buddensieg's  Life  of  Wiclif. 
Burrows's  Wicklif 's  Place  in  History. 
Pauli's  Pictures  of  Old  England. 
1  Stubbs's  Early  Plantagenets. 
1  Rowley's  Rise  of  the  People. 
1  Warburton's  Edward  III. 
Shakespeare's  John  and  Richard  (Hudson's 

edition). 
Scott's  Ivanhoe  and  the  Talisman  (Richard 

I.  and  John). 


VI.  THE  LANCASTRIAN  PERIOD,  1399- 
1461. 

*The     Paston    Letters    (Gairdner's    edition) 

(1424-1506). 
•Fortescue's  Governance  of  England  (Plum- 

mer's  edition)  (1460?). 

*Walsingham's   Historia   Brevis    (not   trans- 
lated) (1272-1422). 
*Hall's  Chronicle  (1398-1509). 
Brougham's    England   under  the   House  of 

Lancaster. 

Besant's  Life  of  Sir  Richard  Whittington. 
Taine's  English  Literature. 
Rand's  Chaucer's  England. 


Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 
Strickland's  Queens  of  England  (Margaret  of 

Anjou). 

Reed's  English  History  in  Shakespeare. 
2  Gairdner's  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York. 
2  Rowley's  Rise  of  the  People. 
Shakespeare's    Henry    IV.,    V.,    and    VI. 

(Hudson's  edition). 

VII.  THE  YORKIST  PERIOD,  1461- 
1485. 

*The   Paston     Letters    (Gairdner's    edition) 

(1424-1506). 
*Sir  Thomas  More's  Edward  V.  and  Richard 

III. 

"Hall's  Chronicle  (1398-1509). 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages. 
Gairdner's  Richard  III. 
Taine's  English  Literature. 
Stubbs's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 
2  Gairdner's  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York. 
2  Rowley's  Rise  of  the  People. 
Shakespeare's  Richard  III.  (Hudson's  edi- 
tion). 


VIII.  THE  TUDOR  PERIOD,  1485- 
1603. 

*Holinshed's  History  of  England  (from  earli- 
est times  to  1577). 
*Lord  Bacon's  Life  of  Henry  VII. 
*Latimer's  ist  and  6th  Sermons  before  Edward 

VI.  and  "  The  Ploughers"  (1549). 
*Hall's  Chronicle  (1398-1509). 

Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

Lingard's  History  of  England  (Roman 
Catholic). 

Froude's  History  of  England. 

Strickland's  Queens  of  England  (Catharine 
of  Aragon,  Anne  Boleyn,  Mary,  Eliza- 
beth). 

Demaus's  Life  of  Latimer. 

Froude's  Short  Studies. 

Nicholls's  Life  of  Cabot. 

Dixon's  History  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Hall's  Society  in  the  Age  of  Elizabeth. 

Thornbury's  Shakespeare's  England. 

Macaulay's  Essay  on  Lord  Burleigh. 

Barrows's  Life  of  Drake. 

Creighton's  Life  of  Raleigh. 

Taine's  English  Literature. 


1  The  three  best  short  histories. 


1  The  two  best  short  histories. 


406 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


1  Creighton's  The  Tudors  and  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

1  Seebohm's  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution. 

1  Moberty's  Early  Tudors. 

1  Creighton's  Age  of  Elizabeth. 

Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII.  (Hudson's  edi- 
tion). 

Scott's  Kenilworth,  Abbot,  Monastery  (Eliz- 
abeth, and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots). 

IX.  THE  STUART  PERIOD  (FIRST 

PART),  1603-1649. 

*The  Prose  Works  of  James  I.  (1599-1625). 
*Fuller's  Church  History  of  Britain  (earliest 

times  to  1648). 
*CIarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion  (1625- 

1660). 

*Memoirs  of  Col.  Hutchinson  (1616-1664). 
*May's    History    of    the     Long    Parliament 
(1640-1643). 

Taine's  History  of  English  Literature. 

Speddings's  Lord  Bacon  and  his  Times. 

Gardiner's  History  of  England  (1603-1642). 

Church's  Life  of  Lord  Bacon. 

Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

Hume's  History  of  England  (Tory). 

Macaulay's  History  of  England  (Whig). 

Lingard's  History  of  England  (Roman  Catho- 
lie). 

Strickland's  Queens  of  England. 

Ranke's  History  of  England  in  the  XVII. 
Century. 

Guizot's  Histoire2  de  Charles  I. 

Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 

Macaulay's  Essays  (Bacon,  Hampden,  Hal- 
lam's  History). 

Goldwin  Smith's  Three  English  Statesmen 
(Cromwell,  Pym,  Hampden). 

8  Cordery's  Struggle  against  Absolute  Mon- 
archy. 

f  Cordery  and  Phillpott's  King  and  Common- 
wealth. 

3  Gardiner's  Puritan  Revolution. 

Scott's  Fortunes  of  Nigel  (James  I.). 

X.  THE  COMMONWEALTH  AND  PRO- 
TECTORATE, 1649-1660  (SEE 

PRECEDING  PERIOD). 

*Ludlow's  Memoirs  (1640-1668). 
*Carlyle's  Life  and  Letters  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well. 


Carlyle's  Hero  Worship  (Cromwell) . 

Guizot's  Cromwell  and  the  Commonwealth. 

Guizot's  Richard  Cromwell. 

Guizot's  Life  of  Monk. 

Masson's  Life  and  Times  of  Milton. 

Bisset's  Omitted  Chapters  in  the  History  oi 

England. 

Pattison's  Life  of  Milton. 
Scott's  Woodstock  (Cromwell). 

XI.  STUART  PERIOD  (SECOND  PART)> 

1660-1714. 

*Evelyn's  Diary  (1641-1706). 

*Pepys's  Diary  (1659-1669). 

*Burnet's  History  of  His  Own  Time  (1660- 

1713)- 

Macaulay's  History  of  England  (Whig) . 

Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  Eng- 
land. 

Taine's  History  of  English  Literature. 

Strickland's  Queens  of  England. 

Ranke's  History  of  England  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Century. 

Hume's  History  of  England  (Tory). 

Brewster's  Life  of  Newton. 

Lingard's  History  of  England  (Roman 
Catholic). 

Green's  History  of  the  English  People. 

Stanhope's  History  of  England. 

Lecky's  History  of  England  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century. 

Macaulay's  Essays  (Milton,  Mackintosh's 
History,  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
and  The  Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Res- 
toration). 

Creighton's  Life  of  Marlborough. 

Guizot's  History  of  Civilization  (Chapter 
XIII). 

3  Morris's  Age  of  Anne. 

3  Kale's  Fall  of  the  Stuarts. 

3  Cordery's  Struggle  against  Absolute  Mon- 
archy. 

Scott's  Peveril  of  the  Peak,  and  Old  Mor- 
tality (Charles  1 1.). 

Thackeray's  Henry  Esmond  (Anne). 

XII.  THE     HANOVERIAN     PERIOD, 
1714  TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME. 

*Memoirs  of  Robert  Walpole. 

*Horace  Walpole's  Memoirs  and  Journals. 


1  The  four  best  short  histories. 

2  See  Guizot's  History  of  the  Revolution  for  translation  of  all  but  introduction  of  120  pages. 
8  The  three  best  short  histories. 


BOOKS    ON    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


407 


Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England 

(to  death  of  George  II.,  1760). 
May's  Constitutional  History  (1760-1870). 
Amos's  English  Constitution  (1830-1880). 
Amos's  Primer  of  the  English  Constitution. 
Bagehot's  English  Constitution. 
Lecky's  History  of  England  in  the  XVIII. 

Century. 

Walpole's  History  of  England  (1815-1860). 
Molesworth's    History    of   England    (1830- 

1870). 

Martineau's  History  of  England  (1816-1846). 
Taine's  History  uf  English  Literature. 
Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 
Bryant's  History  pf  the  United  States. 
Stanhope's  History  of  England  (1713-1783). 
Green's  Causes  of  the  Revolution. 
Seeley's  Expansion  of  England. 
Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic. 
McCarthy's     History    of   Our   Own   Times 

(1837-1880). 
McCarthy's  England  under  Gladstone  (1880- 

1884). 

Ward's  Reign  of  Victoria  (1837-1887). 
Southey's  Life  of  Wesley. 
Southey's  Life  of  Nelson. 
Wharton's  Wits  and  Beaux  of  Society. 
Waite's  Life  of  Wellington. 


Massey's  Life  of  George  III. 

Goldwm  Smith's  Lectures  (Foundation  of  the 

American  Colonies,). 
Macaulay's  Essays  (Warren  Hastings,  Clive, 

Pitt,  Walpole,  Chatham,  Johnson,   Ma- 
dame D'Arblay. 
Smiles's  Life  of  James  Watt. 
Sydney  Smith's  Peter  Plymley's  Letters.. 
Smiles's  Life  of  Stephenson. 
Thackeray's  Four  Georges. 
Smiles's  Industrial  Biography. 
Grant  Allen's  Life  of  Darwin. 
Ash  ton's    Dawn   of    the   XIX.   Century   in 

England. 

1  Ludlow's  American  Revolution. 
1  Rowley's    Settlement   of   the    Constitution 

(1689-1784). 
1  Morris's    Early    Hanoverians    (George    I. 

and  II.). 

1  McCarthy's  Epoch  of  Reform  (1830-1850). 
1  Tancock's  England  during   the   American 

and  European  Wars  (1765-1820). 
1  Browning's  Modern  England  (1820-1874). 
Scott's  Rob  Roy,  Waverley,  and  Redgauntlet 

(the  Old  and  the  Young  Pretender,  1715, 

I745-53)- 

Thackeray's  Virginians  (Washington). 
Dickens's  Barnaby  Rudge  (1780). 


For  fuller  information  in  regard  to  authorities,  see  Professor  Allen's  Reader's  Guide  to 
English  History;  or,  where  a  critical  estimate  of  the  author  is  desired,  consult  Professor 
Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Literature,  and  Professor  Mullinger's  Authorities.  For  review 
articles,  see  Poole's  Index  to  Reviews. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list,  the  following  general  histories  will  be  found  excellent:  — 


Hume's  England  (Brewer's  Student's  edi- 
tion), i  vol. 

Green's  Short  History  of  the  English  People, 
i  vol. 

Bright's  History  of  England,  3  vols. 

Burl's  Synoptical  History  of  England,  i  vol. 

On  the  Constitutional  History  of  England: 
Taswell-Langmead's  Constitutional  His- 
tory, i  vol.;  Creasy's,  i  vol.:  Ransome's, 
i  vol. 

Rogers's  British  Citizen,  i  vol. 

Works  of  Reference. 

Gneist's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

Knight's  Pictorial  History  of  England. 

Taylor's  Words  and  Places. 

P.  V.  Smith's  English  Institutions. 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages. 

Edmunds's  Names  of  Places. 


Cassell's  Dictionary  of  English  History. 

Feilden's  Short  Constitutional  History  of  Eng- 
land. 

Freeman's  Rise  of  the  English  Constitution. 

Digby's  History  of  the  Law  of  Real  Property. 

Blackstone's  Commentaries. 

Mackay's  History  of  Popular  Delusions. 

Cunningham's  Growth  of  English  Industry 
and  Commerce. 

Dowell's  History  of  Taxation  in  England. 

J.  E.  T.  Rogers's  Work  and  Wages. 

Ackland  and  Ransome's  Handbook  of  Eng- 
lish Political  History. 

Spencer's  Sociological  Tables  (England). 

Cutts's  Scenes  and  Characters  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

Eccleston's  English  Antiquities. 

Jessopp's  Life  in  Norfolk  Six  Hundred  Years 
Ago  (Nineteenth  Century,  1883). 


1  The  six  best  short  histories. 


408 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Wright's  Domestic  Manners  in  England  in 

the  Middle  Ages. 

Godwin's  Archaeologist's  Handbook. 
Parker's  Our  English  Home  (Oxford,  1860). 
Bohn's  Cyclopedia  of  Political  Knowledge. 
Bevans's  Statistical  Map  of  England. 
Parker's  Elements  of  Gothic  Architecture. 
Johnston's  Historical  Atlas. 
Wilkins's  Political  Ballads. 
Bailey's  Succession  to  the  Crown. 

On   Modern    England    and  English 
Life,  see 

Irving's  Bracebridge  Hall,  and  Sketch-Book. 
Emerson's  English  Traits. 
Colman's  European  Life  and  Manners. 
Hawthorne's  Our  Old  Home,  and  Note  Books. 
Howitt's  Visits   to   Remarkable   Places,  and 
Rural  Life. 


Timbs's  Abbeys  and  Castles  ot  England  and 
Wales. 

Heath's  English  Peasantry. 

Taine's  Notes  on  England. 

Nadal's  London  Society. 

Hoppins's  Old  England. 

Higginson's  English  Statesmen. 

R.  G.  White's  England  Without  and  Within. 

Escott's  England. 

Society   in   London,  by  a  Foreign  Residenl 
(Harper). 

Patten's   England   as   seen   by  an   American 
Banker. 

O.  W.  Holmes's  One  Hundred  Days  in  Eu- 
rope. 

R.  L.  Collier's  English  Home  Life. 

Laugel's  L'Angleterre. 

Daryl's  La  Vie  Publique  en  Angleterre- 

Max  O'Rell's  John  Bull  et  son  He. 
I  Badeau's  English  Aristocracy, 


STATISTICS  FOR  1887. 

Area  of  England  and  Wales,  58,310  square  miles. 

Extreme  length,  365  miles;  extreme  width,  311  miles. 

No  part  more  than  about  120  miles  from  the  sea. 

Mean  temperature  during  the  year  in  Great  Britain,  49.06°. 

Population  of  England  and  Wales,  27,870,586. 

Population  to  square  mile,  482  (the  most  densely  populated  country  in  Europe,  except  Belgium). 

Area  of  Great  Britain,  88,006  square  miles. 

Population  of  Great  Britain,  31,819,979. 

Area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  120,832  square  miles. 

Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  37,020,000. 

Population  of  London,  about  4,250,000. 

About  one-third  of  the  entire  population  ol  England  and  Wales  is  in  the  cities. 

Area  of  British  Empire,  9,079,711  square  miles. 

Population  of  British  Empire,  320,676,000. 

National  debt  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  .£748,750,000  ($3,623, 950,000.).' 

Average  rate  of  taxation  per  head,  .£2.1.1  ($9.94).* 

Church  of  England  (membership),  13,500,000.* 

Dissenting  churches,  12,500,000.  2 

Roman  Catholics,  2,500,000. 

Number  of  paupers  in  receipt  oi  relief,  807,639. 

Total  number  of  children  of  school  age  (5-15),  5,426,400. 

Total  attendance  (not  including  private  schools),  3,273,124. 

Total  British  army,  676,156. 

Total  effective  force,  200,785. 

Total  navy,  60,632. 

Total  number  of  vessels  in  navy,  258. 

Iron-clads  (ranging  from  1230  to  11,800  tons  each),  76. 


Calling  the  pound  $4.84. 


*  Some  estimates  make  them  about  equal. 


STATISTICS.  409 

Ol  the  cultivated  land  of  England  and  Wales,  something  over  one-fourth,  is  held  by  874  per- 
sons, while  about  10,000  persons  hold  two-thirds  of  the  whole. 
Nr.libsr  of  men  in  army  and  navy,  i  out  of  26. 
National  debt  per  capita,  $127. 

Total  wealth  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  $45,000,000,000  (the  wealthiest  nation  on  the  globe). 
Annual  increase  of  wealth,  $375,000,000 
Average  annual  income,  $165. 
Death  rate  (England  and  Wales),  19.3  per  1000. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (FOR  COMPARISON). 

Aria  (including  Alaska),  3,611,849  square  miles. 

Population,  about  60,000,000. 

National  debt,  $1,380,087,279. 

Total  wealth,  $35,000,000,000. 

Annual  increase  of  wealth,  $825,000,000. 

Average  annual  income,  $165. 

Taxation  per  capita,  $6.00. 

Standing  army,  26,000. 

Navy,  10,340. 

Number  of  men  in  army  and  navy,  i  out  of  322. 

From  1840-1880  the  wealth  of  Great  Britain  doubled;  that  of  the  United  States  increased  ten- 
fold. 

AUTHORITIES:  —  Encyclopaedia  Britannica;  Scribner's  Statistical  Atlas;  Mulhall's  Balance- 
Sheet  of  the  World;  Atkinson's  Strength  of  Nations:  Jean's  Supremacy  of  England; 
The  Statesman's  Year-Rook. 


4IO 


LEADING    FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


INDEX. 


Abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  331. 

slavery,  354. 

Acadia,  villagers  expelled,  320. 
Act  of  Attainder,  285. 

Settlement,  282,  299,  301,  306. 

Supremacy,  211 

Toleration,  282. 

Uniformity,  260. 
Addison,  Joseph,  299. 
Agincourt,  battle  of,  156. 
Agricola,  Roman  governor,  23. 
Aix  la  Chapelle,  treaty  of,  316. 
Alabama,  privateer,  372. 
Albert,  Prince  Consort,  362. 

his  death,  370. 

Albion,  derivation  of  the  name,  9. 
Alfred  the  Great,  40. 

his  laws  and  translations,  42. 

his  navy,  42;  his  victories,  41. 
America  discovered,  186. 
American  colonies  taxed,  324. 

Revolution,  328. 

civil  war,  370,  371. 
Anderida,  siege  of,  33. 
Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  325. 
Angevins,  or  Plantagenets,  87. 
Angles,  invasion  by,  34. 
Anne  Boleyn,  191,  194,  198. 

of  Cleves,  198. 

Queen,  289,  299. 
Anselm,  Archbishop,  72,  73. 
Arch,  Joseph,  374. 
Architecture,  56,  84,  147,  226,  303. 
Arthur,  King,  34. 

Prince,  murdered,  103. 
Articles  of  Faith,  202. 
Artillery  introduced,  184. 
Atlantic  cable  laid,  368. 
Augustine  reaches  England,  35. 
Austrian  Succession,  War  of,  316. 

Bacon,  Lord  Francis,  2t8. 

his  impeachment    236,  302. 
Friar  Roger,  in,  128. 


Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas,  210. 

Bahol,  awarded  Scotch  crown,  117. 

owns  allegiance  to  Edward,  nj 

rebels,  and  is  overthrown,  117. 
Bank  of  England,  288. 
Barebones's  Parliament,  250. 
Baronage,  sketch  of,  359. 
Battle  of  Agincourt,  156. 

Blenheim,  294. 

Bosworth  Field,  172. 

the  Boyne,  286. 

Bunker  Hill,  328. 

Crecy,  127. 

Culloden.  317. 

Dettingen,  310. 

Edgehill,  244. 

Flodden  Field,  190. 

Fontenoy,  316. 

Hastings,  60. 

Lewes,  113. 

Marston  Moor,  245. 

Naseby,  245. 

New  Orleans,  335. 

the  Nile,  333. 

Plassey,  318. 

Ramillies,  294. 

St.  Albans,  165. 

Sedgemoor,  271. 

Sheriffmuir,  310. 

Shrewsbury,  152. 

the  Standard,  76. 

Tewkesbury,  167. 

Tinchebrai,  74. 

Towton,  165. 

Trafalgar,  333. 

Wakefield,  165. 

Waterloo,  335. 

Yorktown,  329. 
Bayeux  Tapestry,  61,  84. 
Becket,  Thomas,  chancellor,  89. 

leaves  England,  91. 

returns,  93;  is  murdered,  93 
Benevolences,  169,  175. 
Bible,  the  first  English,  138. 


INDEX. 


Bill  of  Rights,  282,  301. 
Black  Death,  the,  132. 

Hole  of  Calcutta,  317. 

Prince,  128,  130,  131. 
Bloody  Assizes,  the,  272. 
Boadicea,  her  revolt,  21. 

her  death,  22. 
Board  schools,  375. 
Boleyn,  Anne,  191;  executed,  198. 
Books,  the  earliest,  55. 
Boston  Tea  Party,  327. 
Bretigny,  peace  of,  130. 
Bright,  John,  366. 
Britain,  primitive,  its  climate,  etc.,  I. 

becomes  England,  39. 
Britons,  their  bravery,  34. 
Bronze  Age,  7. 

men,  Greek  account  of,  8. 
Brougham,  Lord  Henry,  346,  353,  361. 
Bruce,  Robert,  his  revolt,  120. 

king  of  Scots,  123. 
Buckingham,  Duke  of,  171. 
Bunyan,  John,  261,  302. 
Butler,  Bishop,  302. 

Cabal,  the,  258. 

Cabinet  government,  rise  of,  308. 

Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian,  185,  226. 

Cade,  Jack,  his  rebellion,  161. 

Caesar,  his  campaigns,  18,  19,  20. 

Calais  taken,  129. 

Calendar,  correction  of,  318. 

Canal  system  begun,  338. 

Cannon,  first  use  of,  128. 

Canute  (Knut)  succeeds  his  father,  45. 

divides  England  into  four  earldoms,  45. 
Caractacus,  captive,  his  dignity,  20. 
Caroline,  Queen,  314. 

of  Brunswick,  Queen,  346. 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  191. 
Catholic  emancipation,  347. 
Cato  Street  conspiracy,  346. 
Caxton  introduces  printing,  167,  168. 
Cecil,  Sir  William,  210. 
Celts,  early,  their  condition,  8. 
Channel,  the  British,  in  history,  15. 
Charles  I.,  King,  238-247. 
II.,  King,  257-269. 
Charter,    the    Great,    105,   108,   109,   112, 

149. 

Charter,  Henry  I.'s,  73. 
Chartists,  the,  363. 
Chaucer,  133,  137,  141. 
Christianity  introduced,  22. 

its  effects,  53. 
Christ's  Hospital,  203. 


Church  property  confiscated,  195,  203. 

rates  abolished,  374. 
Churchill,  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  278, 

293,  361. 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  332. 
Climate  of  England,  16. 
Clive,  Lord,  his  victories,  317. 
Cobden,  Richard,  366. 
Columbus,  his  discoveries,  185,  187,  226. 
Commercial  position  of  England,  16. 
Common  law,  53. 
Commons,  House  of,  supreme,  358. 

rise  of  the  House  of,  114. 
Commonwealth,  protectorate,  247. 
Compurgation,  52. 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  91. 
Corn  Laws,  the,  365;  repealed,  366. 
Cornwallis,  Lord,  his  defeat,  329. 
Corporation  Act,  260,  347. 
Counties  palatine,  64. 
Courts,  reformed,  381. 
Covenanters,  the,  241,  261. 
Cranmer,  Dr.  Thomas,  193. 
Crimea,  war  in  the,  369. 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  241,  248,  250,  236,  254. 

Richard,  255,  256. 

Thomas,  194;  beheaded,  198. 
Crosby  Hall,  London,  178. 
Crusades,  102. 
Cuthbert,  monk  and  missionary,  36. 

"  Danegeld,"  tribute  to  Northmen,  44. 

Danish  names,  14;  invasion,  40. 

Darwin,  Charles,  379. 

David    I.,    of   Scotland,     invades    England, 

76. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  340. 
Declaration  of  Right,  280. 
De  Foe,  Daniel,  302. 
De  Montfort,  Earl  Simon,  112,  143,  361. 

defeats  Henry  III.,  113. 

summons  a  parliament,  114. 

his  monument  still  unbuilt,  114. 
Despenser,  Hugh,  and  his  son,  123. 
Disraeli,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  361,  37-5. 
Dissenters  relieved,  375. 
"  Divine  Right  of  Kings,"  232,  238,  290,  296; 

300. 

Domesday  Book,  67. 
Dover,  treaty  of,  264. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  220. 
Druids,  their  abode,  teaching,  etc.,  10. 

expedition  against,  21. 
Dry  den,  John,  302. 

Dudley,  Lord  Gulford,  205;  beheaded,  206. 
Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  43. 


412 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Education  Bill,  361,  374. 

Edward,  Prince,  45;  Confessor,  46. 

I.,  King,  summons  Parliament,  115. 
builds  Conway  and  other  castles,  116. 

II.,  his  incapacity,  123. 

deposed  and  murdered,  124. 
III.,  king  at  fourteen,  124;  his  death,  134. 

IV.,  King,  167. 

V.,  Prince,  170. 

VI.,  King,  201. 

(Black  Prince),  128,  130,  131. 
Egbert,  King,  39. 
Eleanor,  Queen,  her  heroism,  115. 

her  death,  118;  crosses,  118. 

her  tomb,  119. 
Eliot,  Sir  John,  240. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  206,  208-222. 

of  York,  172. 

Elliott,  Ebenezer,  corn-law  poet,  366. 
England,  early,  its  geography,  etc.,  12. 

its  commercial  situation,  16. 
English  people,  their  progress,  380-388. 

history,  its  characteristics,  388. 

-speaking  race,  its  unity,  388. 
Entail,  119,  143. 

Factory  reform,  354. 

Fairfax,  Lord  Thomas,  248. 

Fair  Rosamond,  94. 

Feudal  System,  50,  80,  269. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  190. 

Fielding,  Henry,  302. 

Fire,  great,  of  London,  262. 

Fisher,  Bishop  John,  executed,  195. 

Five  Members,  attempted  arrest  of  the,  242. 

Folkland,  50. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  332. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  326. 

Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia,  318. 

Freemen   their  duties,  50. 

Free  trade,  366. 

French  Revolution,  332. 

Friction  match,  the,  355. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin,  his  voyages,  217. 

Fry,  Elizabeth,  philanthropist,  332. 

Fulton,  Robert,  his  steamboat,  340. 

Gas,  burning,  first  used,  359. 
Gaveston,  Piers,  banished,  122. 

returns,  122;  beheaded,  122. 
Geneva,  international  court  at,  372. 
George,  of  Denmark,  Prince,  289. 
I.,  King,  306-314. 
II.,  King,  314-322. 
III.,  King,  323-343. 
IV.,  King,  344-348. 


Gibraltar  taken,  294. 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  362,  371. 

Glencoe,  massacre  of,  287. 

Glendower,  Owen,  151. 

Gloucester,  appointed  Protector,  169. 

Gordon,  Lord  George,  riots,  330. 

"  Gospel  Oaks,"  322. 

Government,  its  stability,  357. 

Gregory  I.  and  English  slaves  in  Rome,  35 

Pope,  sends  missionaries,  35. 

VII.,  his  appeal  to  William,  65. 
Grey,  Earl,  353. 

Lady  Jane,  204 ;  beheaded,  206. 
Grove,  Sir  William,  379. 
Guilds,  57,  147. 
Gunpowder  plot,  232. 

Habeas  Corpus  Act,  269,  361. 
Hampden,  John,  238,  241. 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  231. 
Harold,  King,  47,  58. 

his  death,  60;  his  grave,  60. 
Hastings,  Warren,  impeached,  330. 
Henry  I.,  issues  a  charter,  73. 

seizes  Normandy,  74. 
II. i  his  charter  and  reforms,  88. 

quarrels  with  Becket,  90,  93. 
III.,  King,  109;   his  extravagance,  no 
rebuilds  Westminster  Abbey,  no. 
IV.,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  king,  150. 

his  death,  154. 
V.,  Prince,  154;  king,  155. 

conquest  of  France,  155,  157. 
VI.,  King,  158. 

marries  Margaret  of  Anjou,  160. 
dies  a 'prisoner  in  the  Tower,  166. 
VII.,  marries  Elizabeth  of  York,  179. 

his  chapel,  186. 
VIII.,  King,  187;  his  death,  200. 

his  marriages,  190,  194,  198,  199. 
Hereward,  62. 

High  Commission  Court,  211,  242,  275. 
Hildebrand  (Pope  Gregory  VII.),  65. 
Hill,  Sir  Rowland,  363. 
Howard,  Catharine,  199. 

John,  philanthropist,  332. 
Hume,  David,  302. 
Hundred  Years'  War,  126,  131. 

India,  rebellion  in,  369. 

Clive  in,  317. 

English  Empire  in,  317. 
Insane,  improved  treatment  of,  381. 
Intemperance  in  the  eighteenth  century,  321 
Ireland,  colonization  of,  235. 

famine  in,  366. 


INDEX. 


413 


Irish  Church  disestablished,  374. 

Land  Act,  376,  378. 

Land  League,  377. 
Iron,  its  early  use,  9. 
Isabelle  of  France,  Queen,  123. 

her  infidelity,  123. 

murders  her  husband,  124. 

prisoner  for  life,  125. 

Jacobites,  281. 
James  I.,  King,  229-237. 
II.,  King,  270-280. 
Jeffreys,  Judge  George,  272. 
Jenkins's  ear,  war  of,  315. 
Jenner,  Dr.  Edward,  313. 
Jews,  robbed  and  expelled,  118. 

admitted  to  Parliament,  361,  373. 
Joan  of  Arc,  159. 

John  (Lackland),  King,  his  quarrels,  103. 
'  murders  Prince  Arthur,  103. 

grants  Magna  Carta,  106. 

his  evasions;  his  death,  108. 

of  Gaunt  (Ghent),  134. 
Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  290,  302. 
Jonson,  Ben,  218,  302. 
"  Junius,"  his  letters,  331. 
Jutes,  their  invasion,  32. 

Knighthood,  83. 

Knights  of  St.  John  (Hospitallers),  144. 
Templars,  144. 

Land  League,  377. 

Law  reform,  331,  380. 

Lewes,  battle  of  113. 

Lincoln,  President  Abraham,  371. 

Literature,  rise  of  English,  133,  137. 

of  Anne's  reign,  298. 

of  Elizabeth's,  216,  218. 

of  George  lll.'s,  341. 

of  present  age,  380. 

Livingstone,  David,  African  explorer,  379. 
Locke,  John,  302. 
Lollards,  139;  persecuted,  153. 

outbreak  of,  155. 
Fx>ndon  (Llyn-din),  its  origin,  21. 

police,  348. 

William's  charter,  61. 
Londonderry,  siege  of,  285. 
Long  Parliament,  241. 
I-ords  Ordainers,  122. 
Luther,  187,  189. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  379 

Macaulay,  Lord  Thomas  Babington,  361. 
Magellan,  Ferdinand  de,  navigator,  226. 


Magna  Carta,  105,  107,  142. 
Man,  primitive,  his  condition,  2. 

what  we  owe  to  him,  10. 
Manchester  massacre,  344. 
Mandeville,  Sir  John,  his  travels,  133. 
Mar,  John  Erskine,  Earl  of,  310. 
Margaret,  Queen,  her  bravery,  165. 

flight  to  Scotland,  166. 

prisoner;  released;  died  in  France,  167. 
Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of,  278, 
293- 

Sarah  Jennings,  Duchess  of,  295. 
Martin  Luther,  187,  189. 
Mary  (Bloody),  Queen,  204. 

marries  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  206. 

her  persecutions,  206;  her  death,  207. 

"Queen  of  Scots,"  202,  218,  219. 
Masham,  Mrs.  Abigail,  296. 
Matilda  (Maud),  queen  of  Henry  I.,  73. 

claims  the  crown,  75. 
Methodists,  their  rise,  321. 
Milton,  John,  248,  302. 
Miner's  safety  lamp,  by  Davy,  340. 
Monasteries  suppressed,  195. 
Monk,  General  (Duke  of  Albemarle),  256. 
Monks,  their  literary  work,  37. 
Monmouth,  Duke  of,  271. 
Monopolies,  215,  237. 
Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  his  defence  of  Quebec; 

his  death,  320. 

Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis,  249. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  chancellor,  executed,  195. 

his  "  Utopia,"  216. 

Mortimer,  Roger  (Earl  of  March),  123. 
Mortmain,  120,  144. 
Mutiny  Act,  282. 

Names:  Celtic,  Roman,  13. 

Saxon,  Danish,  Norman,  14. 
Nantes,  edict  of,  274. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  333. 
National  council,  77. 

debt,  288,  336. 

Nelson,  Lord  Horatio,  Admiral,  333,  36«. 
New  Amsterdam  seized,  262. 

Forest,  66. 

"  New  Learning,"  the,  188. 
"  New  Style,"  correction  of  the  calendar,  318. 
Newspaper,  first,  244,  298. 

tax,  368. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  268,  303,  379. 
Nobility,  the,  80,  160,  360. 
Non-jurors,  281. 

Norman  Conquest,  58;   its  results,  69,  357. 
Normandy,  loss  of,  104. 
North,  Lord,  premier,  323 


414 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


Northmen,  the,  invade  France,  44. 
or  Normans,  settle  Normandy,  44. 

Gates,  Titus,  266,  270. 
O'Connell,  Daniel,  348. 
O'Connor,  Feargns,  364. 
Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  155. 
Opium  War,  the,  369. 
Ordeal,  the,  52. 
Oxygen,  discovery  of,  339. 

"  Parliament,  the  Mad,"  112. 

expelled,  249. 

convention,  256,  280. 

debates  of,  published,  331. 
Parliamentary  reform,  349. 
Parr,  Catharine,  199. 
Peel,  Sir  Robert,  premier,  348. 
Peerage,  sketch  of,  359. 
Peers,  their  number  and  influence,  361. 
"  Petition  of  Right,"  239. 
Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  206. 
"  Pilgrims,  the,"  233. 
Pillory,  the,  331. 
Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham,  314,  326. 

the  younger,  premier,  332,  337,  361. 
Plague,  the,  132,  262. 
Plantagenet,  87. 
Poitiers,  victory  of,  130. 
Police,  the  new,  348. 
Political  progress,  358. 
Poor-law,  the  first,  222. 
Pope,  the,  and  William  I.,  65. 

and  John,  105. 

and  Henry  VIII.,  194. 

Alexander,  302. 
Popish  plot,  266. 
Postal  reform,  363. 
Post-office  begun,  224. 
Prehistoric  man,  10. 

President  of  United  States,  his  powers,  359. 
Press,  the,  284,  331. 

"Pretender,"  the  (James  Edward),  278,  292, 
310. 

the  Young"  (Charles  Edward),  310,316. 
"  Pride's  Purge,"  246. 
Priestley,  Dr.  Joseph,  scientist,  339. 
Prince  Rupert,  243. 
Printing,  introduction  of,  167,  177. 
Protestantism  established,  202. 

effects  of,  204. 
Purveyance,  176. 

Quebec,  capture  of,  320. 
Queen,  the,  her  powers,  358. 

Victoria,  her  lineage,  357. 

her  marriage,  362. 


Railway,  steam,  the  first,  355. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  217;   beheaded,  237. 

Reform  Bill,  351,  361. 

the  second,  373. 

the  third,  374. 
"  Regicides,"  the,  260. 
Revolution  of  1688,  279,  284. 

American,  328. 

French,  332. 
Richard  I.  (Coeur  de  Lion),  King,  97. 

in  third  crusade,  99;  prisoner,  107 
II  ,  King,  134. 

deposed  and  murdered,  140. 
III.  (Duke  of  Gloucester),  King,  170 

his  death,  173. 
Robert  invades  England  and  retires,  74. 

prisoner;  his  death,  74. 

Roman  Catholicism,  199,  204,  206,  270,  274, 
283. 

invasion,  12,  19. 

first  colony,  20;   cities,  24. 

system  of  government,  24. 

paved  roads,  24;  forts  and  walls,  25 

taxation  and  cruelty,  27. 

remains  still  existing,  28. 
Rotten  boroughs,  349. 
Royal  Society,  the,  268. 
Rump  Parliament,  246. 
Runes,  54. 

Rye  House  Plot,  267. 
Ryswick,  peace  of,  200. 

Sacheverell,  Dr   Henry,  296. 

Saint  Albans,  council  held  there,  106. 

Bartholomew's  Day  (massacre),  219. 

Paul's  Cathedral.  288,  303. 
Saxon  invasion,  33,  47. 

names,  14. 

Schools,  government,  375. 
Scroggs,  Sir  William,  Chief  Justice,  266,  284 
Scutage,  89,  144. 
Seven  Bishops,  petition  of,  276. 

Years'  War,  318. 
Seymour,  Jane,  198. 
Shakespeare,  218,  226,  302. 
Ship  money,  240. 
Siege  of  Londonderry,  285. 
Slave  trade  abolished,  331. 
Slavery  abolished,  354. 
Small-pox  conquered,  312. 
Smith,  John,  Captain,  233. 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  the,  244. 
South  Sea  Bubble,  311. 
Spanish  Armada,  220. 

Succession,  War  of,  291. 
Spectator,  the  (Addison's),  299. 


INDEX. 


415 


Spenser,  Edmund,  poet,  218. 
Stamp  Act,  the,  325. 
Star-Chamber  Court,  183,  240,  242. 
Statistics,  408,  409. 
Statutes  of  Winchester,  119 
Steam-engine,  303;  perfected,  338. 

navigation,  340, 

Stephen,  last  of  Norman  kings,  75,  77. 
Stone  Age,  rough,  2,  polished,  5 

of  Scone,  116. 
Stonehenge,  10,  68. 
Strike,  the  great,  132,  148. 
-Supremacy,  Act  of,  194,  21  r. 
Survey,  the  great,  67. 
Sweyn,  the  Dane,  conquers  England,  45. 
Swift,  Jonathan,  Dean,  302,  311. 
Sydney,  Sir  Philip,  217. 

Talbot,    Richard    (Earl   of  Tyrconnel),   275, 

285. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  Bishop,  303. 
Tea  tax,  326. 

Ten..;,  son,  Lord,  poet,  361. 
Test  Act,  347. 

Thirty-nine  Articles,  the,  212 
Tin,  early  found  in  Cornwall,  9. 
Toleration  Act,  281,  284. 
Tower  of  London,  63,  85. 
Towns,  rise  of  free,  99. 
Treaty  of  Dover,  264. 

Troyes,  157. 

Utrecht,  297. 

Wedmore,  41. 

Trelawney,  Jonathan,  Bishop,  376. 
Trial  by  battle,  79. 

by  jury,  96. 
Tudor,  House  of,  179. 
Tyler,  Wat,  133. 
Tyndall,  John,  scientist,  380. 

Union  of  England  and  Scotland,  298 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  337. 

Unitarians  burned,  302 

United  States,  independence  of,  338. 
war  with,  328-329. 
second  war,  334. 

Utrecht,  treaty  of,  297. 


Vaccination  introduced,  313. 
Vane,  Sir  Henry,  250. 
Victoria,  Queen,  357. 
Virginia  colonized,  233. 
Vortigern's  advice,  32. 

Wales,  Prince  of,  the  first,  116 
Wallace,  Sir  William,  rebels,  117. 

captured  and  executed,  118. 
Walpole,  Sir  Robert,  premier,  308,  313,  331. 
Walsingham,  Sir  Francis,  210. 
Walworth,  mayor  of  London,  136. 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  162-164,  173. 
Washington,  George,  251,  319,  329. 
Watt,  James,  inventor,  338,  339,  340. 
Wat  Tyler,  his  rebellion,  135;   killed,  136. 
Wellington,  Duke  of,  334,  335,  336,  347,  352. 

361. 

Wentworth,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Strafford,  240. 
Wesley,  Rev   John,  321. 
Westminster  Abbey  built,  46;   rebuilt,  no 
White  Horse,  the,  Alfred's  standard,  41. 
Wilberforce,  William,  philanthropist,  332. 
Wilkes,  John,  political  writer,  331. 
William,  the  Norman,  invades  England,  58. 

grants  charter  to  London,  61. 

builds  Tower  of  London,  63. 

his  character,  66;  his  death,  68. 

his  grave,  how  paid  for,  69. 

his  bequest,  70 

Prince  of  Orange,  277,  289, 

and  Mary  crowned,  280-289. 

Rufus,  King,  his  violence  and  fraud,  71 
his  merits;  his  death,  72. 

IV.,  King,  349-356. 
Window  tax,  368 
Witan  (council),  49. 

Wolfe,  Gen.  James,  captures  Quebec,  320. 
Wolsey,  Cardinal  Thomas,  191—193. 
Woman  suffrage,  373. 
Wool,  its  production  and  manufacture,  125, 

148,   227. 
World's  Fair,  368. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  architect,  264,  288,  303. 
Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  his  rebellion,  205. 
Wycliffe,   John,    reformer    and    martyr,    133, 
'38.  '39- 


GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  ENGLISH  CONSTITUTIONAL 
HISTORY.1 

1.  Origin  and  Primitive  Government  of  the  English  People.  — 

The  main  body  of  the  English  people  did  not  originate  in  Britain,  but 
in  Northwestern  Germany.  The  Jutes,  Saxons,  and  Angles  were  inde- 
pendent, kindred  tribes  living  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe  and  its  vicinity. 

They  had  no  written  laws,  but  obeyed  time-honored  customs  which 
had  all  the  force  of  laws.  All  matters  of  public  importance  were  de- 
cided by  each  tribe  at  meetings  held  in  the  open  air.  There  every 
freeman  had  an  equal  voice  in  the  decision.  There  the  people  chose 
their  rulers  and  military  leaders  ;  they  discussed  questions  of  peace  and 
war;  finally,  acting  as  a  high  court  of  justice,  they  tried  criminals  and 
settled  disputes  about  property. 

In  these  rude  methods  we  see  the  beginning  of  the  English  Constitu- 
tion. Its  growth  has  been  the  slow  work  of  centuries,  but  the  great 
principles  underlying  it  have  never  changed.  At  every  stage  of  their 
progress  the  English  people  and  their  descendants  throughout  the 
globe  have  claimed  the  right  of  self-government  ;  and,  if  we  except  the 
period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  whenever  that  right  has  been  persist- 
ently withheld  or  denied  the  people  have  risen  in  arms  and  regained  it. 

2.  Conquest  of  Britain;  Origin  and  Power  of  the  King.  —  After 
the  Romans  abandoned  Britain  the  English  invaded  the  island,  and 
in  the  course  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  (449-600)  conquered  it  and 
established  a  number  of  rival  settlements.     The  native  Britons  were,  in 
great  part,  killed  off  or  driven  to  take  refuge  in  Wales  and  Cornwall. 

The  conquerors  brought  to  their  new  home  the  methods  of  govern- 
ment and  modes  of  life  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  in  Ger- 
many. A  cluster  of  towns  —  that  is,  a  small  number  of  enclosed  2  habi- 
tations —  formed  a  hundred  (a  district  having  either  a  hundred  families 
or  able  to  furnish  a  hundred  warriors)  ;  a  cluster  of  hundreds  formed  a 
shire  or  county.  Each  of  these  divisions  had  its  public  meeting,  com- 
posed of  all  its  freemen  or  their  representatives,  for  the  management  of 
its  own  affairs.  But  a  state  of  war  —  for  the  English  tribes  fought  each 
other  as  well  as  fought  the  Britons  —  made  a  strong  central  government 
necessary.  For  this  reason  the  leader  of  each  tribe  was  made  king. 
At  first  he  was  chosen,  at  large,  by  the  entire  tribe  ;  later,  unless  there 
was  some  good  reason  for  a  different  choice,  the  king's  eldest  son  was 
selected  as  his  successor.  Thus  the  right  to  rule  was  practically  fixed 
in  the  line  of  a  certain  family  descent. 

The  ruler  of  each  of  these  petty  kingdoms  was  (i)  the  commander- 
in-chief  in  war  ;  (2)  he  was  the  supreme  judge. 

1  This  Summary  is  inserted  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  a  compact,  connected  view 
of  the  development  of  the  English  Constitution,  such  as  may  be  conveniently  used  either  for 
reference,  for  a  general  review  of  the  subject,  or  for  purposes  of  special  study. 


reference-book  this  manual  has  no  equal),  and  Ransome,  in  the  List  of  Books  on  page  404.^ 
The  references  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  are  to  the  body  of  the  History  unless  otherwise 

stated. 

-  See  page  56,  Paragraph  139. 

417 


41 8  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

3.  The  Witenagemot,  or  General    Council.  —  In   all   other  re- 
spects the  king's  authority  was  limited  —  except  when  he  was  strong 
enough  to  get  his  own  way  —  by  the  Witenagemot,  or  General  Coun- 
cil.    This  body  consisted  of  the  chief  men  of  each  kingdom  acting  in 
behalf  of  its  people.1     It  exercised  the  following  powers  :  (i)  it  elected 
the  king,  and  if  the  people  confirmed  the  choice,  he  was  crowned. 
(2)  If  the  king  proved  unsatisfactory,  the  council  might  depose  him 
and  choose  a  successor.     (3)  The  king,  with  the  consent  of  the  coun- 
cil, made  the  laws  —  that  is,  he  declared  the  customs  of  the  tribe. 
(4)  The  king,  with  the  council,  appointed  the  chief  officers  of  the  king- 
dom (after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  this  included  the  bishops)  ; 
but  the  king  alone  appointed  the  sheriff,  to  represent  him,  and  collect 
the  revenue  in  each  shire.     (5)  The  council  confirmed  or  denied  grants 
of  portions  of  the  public  lands  made  by  the  king  to  private  persons. 
(6)  The  council  acted  as  the  high  court  of  justice,  the  king  sitting  as 
supreme  judge.    (7)  The  council,  with  the  king,  discussed  all  questions 
of  importance  —  such  as  the  levying  of  taxes,  the  making  of  treaties; 
smaller  matters  were  left  to  the  towns,  hundreds,  and  shires  to  settle 
for  themselves.    After  the  consolidation  of  the  different  English  king- 
doms into  one,  the  Witenagemot  expanded  into  the  National  Council. 
In  it  we  see  "  the  true  beginning  of  the  Parliament  of  England." 

4.  How  England  became  a  United  Kingdom ;  Influence  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  Danish  Invasions.  —  For  a  number  of  centuries 
Britain  consisted  of  a  number  of  little  rival  kingdoms,  almost   con- 
stantly at  war  with  each  other.     Meanwhile  missionaries  from  Rome 
had  introduced  Christianity  (597).    Through  the  influence  of  Theodore 
of  Tarsus,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (668),  the  clergy  of  the  different 
hostile  kingdoms  met  in  general  Church  councils.2    This  religious  unity 
of  action  prepared  the  way  for  political  unity.     The  Catholic  Church  — 
the  only  Christian  Church  then  existing  —  made  men  feel  that  their 
highest  interests  were  one  ;  it  "  created  the  nation." 

This  was  the  first  cause  of  the  union  of  the  kingdoms.  The  second 
was  the  invasions  of  the  Danes.  These  fierce  marauders  forced  the 
people  south  of  the  Thames  to  join  in  common  defence,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Alfred,  king  of  the  West  Saxons.  By  the  treaty  of  Wedmore 
(878),  the  Danes  were  compelled  to  give  up  Southwestern  England,  but 
they  retained  the  whole  of  the  Northeast.  About  the  middle  of  the 
tenth  century,  one  of  Alfred's  grandsons  conquered  the  Danes,  and 
took  the  title  of  "  King  of  all  England."3  Later,  the  Danes,  reinforced 
by  fresh  invasions  of  their  countrymen,  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
land ;  yet  Canute,  the  most  powerful  of  these  Danish  kings,  ruled 
according  to  English  methods.  At  length  the  great  body  of  the  people 

1  The  Witenagemot,  says  Stubbs  (Select  Charters),  represented  the  people,  although  it 
was  not  a  collection  of  representatives. 

2  This  movement  began  several  years  earlier,  —  see  page  38,  —  but  Theodore  of  Tarsus  was 
its  first  great  organizer. 

3  Some  authorities  consider  Edgar  (959)  as  the  first  "  King  of  all   England."     In  828 
Egbert,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  once,  though  but  once,  took  the  lesser  title  of  "  King  of 
.he  English."     See  page  39. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  419 

united  in  choosing  Edward  the  Confessor  king  (1042-1066).  He  was 
English  by  birth,  but  Norman  by  education.  Under  him  the  unity  of 
the  English  kingdom  was,  in  name  at  least,  fully  restored. 

5.  Beginning  of  the  Feudal  System ;  its  Results.  —  Meantime 
a  great  change  had  taken  place  in  England  with  respect  to  holding  land. 
We  shall  see  clearly  to  what  that  change  was  tending  if  we  look  at  the 
condition  of  France.  There  a  system  of  government  and  of  land  tenure 
existed  known  as  the  Feudal  System.  Under  it  the  king  was  regarded 
as  the  owner  of  the  entire  realm.  He  granted,  with  his  royal  protec- 
tion, the  use  of  portions  of  the  land  to  his  chief  men  or  nobles,  with 
the  privilege  of  building  castles  and  of  establishing  private  courts  of 
justice  on  these  estates.  Such  grants  were  made  on  two  conditions : 
(i)  that  the  tenants  should  take  part  in  the  king's  council;  (2)  that 
they  should  do  military  service  in  the  king's  behalf,  and  furnish  besides 
a  certain  number  of  fully  armed  horsemen  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  land  they  had  received.  So  long  as  they  fulfilled  these  conditions 
—  made  under  oath  —  they  could  retain  their  estates,  and  hand  them 
down  to  their  children ;  but  if  they  failed  to  keep  their  oath,  they  for- 
feited the  land  to  the  king. 

These  great  military  barons  or  lords  let  out  parts  of  their  immense 
manors,1  or  estates,  on  similar  conditions — namely,  (i)  that  their 
vassals  or  tenants  should  pay  rent  to  them  by  doing  military  or  other 
service  ;  and  (2)  that  they  should  agree  that  all  questions  concerning  their 
rights  and  duties  should  be  tried  in  the  lord's  private  court.2  On  the 
other  hand,  the  lord  of  the  manor  pledged  himself  to  protect  his  vassals. 

On  every  manor  there  were  usually  three  classes  of  these  tenants : 
(i)  those  who  discharged  their  rent  by  doing  military  duty;  (2)  those 
who  paid  by  a  certain  fixed  amount  of  labor  —  or,  if  they  preferred, 
in  produce  or  in  money ;  (3)  the  villeins,  or  common  laborers,  who 
were  bound  to  remain  on  the  estate  and  work  for  the  lord,  and  whose 
condition,  although  they  were  not  wholly  destitute  of  legal  rights,  was 
practically  not  very  much  above  that  of  slaves. 

But  there  was  another  way  by  which  men  might  enter  the  Feudal 
System ;  for  while  it  was  growing  up  there  were  many  small  free  land- 
holders, who  owned  their  farms,  and  owed  no  man  any  service  what- 
ever. In  those  times  of  constant  civil  war  such  men  would  be  in  almost 
daily  peril  of  losing,  not  only  their  property,  but  their  lives.  To  escape 
this  danger,  they  would  hasten  to  "commend"  themselves  to  some 
powerful  neighboring  lord.  To  do  this,  they  pledged  themselves  to 
become  "his  men,"  surrendered  their  farms  to  him,  and  received  them 

1  Manor:  —see  Plan  of  a  Manor  on  page  80—  (Old  French  manoir,  a  mansion) ,  the  estate 
of  a  feudal  lord.  Every  manor  had  two  courts.  The  most  important  of  these  was  the  "  court 
baron."  It  was  composed  of  all  the  free  tenants  of  the  manor,  with  the  lord  (or  his  represent- 
ative) presiding.  It  dealt  with  civil  cases  only.  The  second  court  was  the  "  court  cus- 
tomary," which  dealt  with  cases  connected  with  villeinage.  The  manors  held  by  the  greater 
barons  had  a  third  court,  the  "  court  leet,"  which  dealt  with  criminal  cases,  and  could  inflict 
the  death  penalty.  In  all  cases  the  decisions  of  the  manorial  courts  would  be  pretty  sure  to 
be  in  the  lord's  favor.  In  England,  however,  these  courts  never  acquired  the  degree  of  power 
which  they  did  on  the  continent. 

-  See  Note  above,  on  the  Manor. 


42O  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

again  as  feudal  vassals.  That  is,  the  lord  bound  himself  to  protect 
them  against  their  enemies,  and  they  bound  themselves  to  do  "  suit  and 
service  " 1  like  the  other  tenants  of  the  manor ;  for  "  suit  and  service  " 
on  the  one  side,  and  '''•protection'''1  on  the  other,  made  up  the  threefold 
foundation  of  the  Feudal  System, 

Thus  in  time  all  classes  of  society  became  bound  together.  At  the 
top  stood  the  king,  who  was  no  man's  tenant,  but,  in  name  at  least, 
every  man's  master ;  at  the  bottom  crouched  the  villein,  who  was  no 
man's  master,  but  was,  in  fact,  the  most  servile  and  helpless  of  tenants. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  things  in  France.  In  England,  however, 
this  system  of  land  tenure  was  never  completely  established  until  after 
the  Norman  Conquest  (1066).  For  in  England  the  tie  which  bound 
men  to  the  king  and  to  each  other  was  originally  one  of  pure  choice, 
and  had  nothing  directly  to  do  with  land.  Gradually,  however,  this 
changed ;  and  by  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  land  in  England 
had  come  to  be  held  on  conditions  so  closely  resembling  those  of  France 
that  one  step  more  —  and  that  a  very  short  one  —  would  have  made 
England  a  kingdom  exhibiting  all  the  most  dangerous  features  of 
French  feudalism. 

For,  notwithstanding  certain  advantages,2  feudalism  had  this  great 
evil:  that  the  chief  nobles  often  became  in  time  more  powerful  than 
the  king.  This  danger  now  menaced  England.  For  convenience 
Canute  the  Dane  had  divided  the  realm  into  four  earldoms.  The 
holders  of  these  vast  estates  had  grown  so  mighty  that  they  scorned 
royal  authority.  Edward  the  Confessor  did  not  dare  resist  them.  The 
ambition  of  each  earl  was  to  get  the  supreme  mastery.  This  threatened 
to  bring  on  civil  war,  and  to  split  the  kingdom  into  fragments.  For- 
tunately for  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  William  of  Normandy,  by  his 
invasion  and  conquest  of  England  (1066),  put  an  effectual  stop  to  the 
selfish  schemes  of  these  four  rival  nobles. 

6.  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  Work.  —  After  William's  vic- 
tory at  Hastings  and  march  on  London,  the  National  Council  chose  him 
sovereign,  —  they  would  not  have  dared  to  refuse,  —  and  he  was  crowned 
by  the  archbishop  of  York  in  Westminster  Abbey.  This  coronation 
made  him  the  legal  successor  of  the  line  of  English  kings.  In  form, 
therefore,  there  was  no  break  in  the  order  of  government ;  for  though 
William  had  forced  himself  upon  the  throne,  he  had  done  so  according 
to  law  and  custom,  and  not  directly  by  the  sword. 

Great  changes  followed  the  conquest,  but  they  were  not  violent. 
The  king  abolished  the  four  great  earldoms,  and  restored  national 
unity.  He  gradually  dispossessed  the  chief  English  landholders  of 
their  lands,  and  bestowed  them,  under  strict  feudal  laws,  on  his  Norman 
followers.  He  likewise  gave  all  the  highest  positions  in  the  Church  to 
Norman  bishops  and  abbots.  The  National  Council  now  changed  its 
character.  It  became  simply  a  body  of  Norman  barons,  who  were 

1  That  is,  they  pledged  themselves  to  do  suit  in  the  lord's  private  court,  and  to  do  service 
in  his  army. 

2  On  the  Advantages  of  Feudalism,  see  page  51. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  421 

bound  by  feudal  custom  to  meet  with  the  king.  But  they  did  not  re- 
strain his  authority ;  for  William  would  brook  no  interference  with  his 
will  from  any  one,  not  even  from  the  Pope  himself. 

But  though  the  Conqueror  had  a  tyrant's  power,  he  rarely  used  it  like 
a  tyrant.  We  have  seen 1  that  the  great  excellence  of  the  early  Eng- 
lish government  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  towns,  hundreds,  and  shires 
were  self-governing  in  all  local  matters ;  the  drawback  to  this  system 
was  its  lack  of  unity  and  of  a  strong  central  power  that  could  make 
itself  respected  and  obeyed.  William  supplied  this  power,  —  without 
which  there  could  be  no  true  national  strength,  —  yet  at  the  same  time 
he  was  careful  to  encourage  the  local  system  of  self-government.  He 

fave  London  a  liberal  charter  to  protect  its  rights  and  liberties.  He 
egan  the  organization  of  a  royal  court  of  justice ;  he  checked  the 
rapacious  Norman  barons  in  their  efforts  to  get  control  of  the  people's 
courts. 

Furthermore,  side  by  side  with  the  feudal  cavalry  army,  he  maintained 
the  old  English  county  militia  of  foot-soldiers,  in  which  every  freeman 
was  bound  to  serve.  He  used  this  militia,  when  necessary,  to  prevent 
the  barons  from  getting  the  upperhand,  and  so  destroying  those  liber- 
ties which  were  protected  by  the  crown  as  its  own  best  safeguard 
against  the  plots  of  the  nobles. 

Next,  William  had  a  census,  survey,  and  valuation  made  of  all  the 
estates  in  the  kingdom  outside  London  which  were  worth  examination. 
The  result  of  this  great  work  was  recorded  in  Domesday  Book.  By 
means  of  that  book  —  still  preserved  —  the  king  knew  what  no  English 
ruler  had  known  before  him  ;  that  was,  the  property-holding  population 
and  resources  of  the  kingdom.  Thus  a  solid  foundation  was  laid  on 
which  to  establish  the  feudal  revenue  and  the  military  power  of  the 
crown. 

Finally,  just  before  his  death,  the  Conqueror  completed  the  organiza- 
tion of  his  government.  Hitherto  the  vassals  of  the  great  barons  had 
been  bound  to  them  alone.  They  were  sworn  to  fight  for  their  masters, 
even  if  those  masters  rose  in  open  rebellion  against  the  sovereign. 
William  changed  all  that.  At  a  meeting  held  at  Salisbury  (1086)  he 
compelled  every  landholder  in  England,  from  the  greatest  to  the  smallest, 
—  60,000,  it  is  said,  —  to  swear  to  be  "  faithful  to  him  against  all  others." 
By  that  oath  he  "  broke  the  neck  of  the  Feudal  System  "  as  a  form  of 
government,  though  he  retained  and  developed  the  principle  of  feudal 
land  tenure.  Thus  at  one  stroke  he  made  the  crown  the  supreme 
power  in  England ;  had  he  not  done  so,  the  nation  would  soon  have 
been  a  prey  to  civil  war. 

7.  "William's  Norman  Successors.  —  William  Rufus  has  a  bad 
name  in  history,  and  he  fully  deserves  it.  But  he  had  this  merit :  he 
held  the  Norman  barons  in  check  with  a  stiff  hand,  and  so,  in  one  way, 
gave  the  country  comparative  peace. 

His  successor,  Henry  I.,  granted  (noo)  a  charter  of  liberties2  to  his 

1  See  Paragraphs  2,  3,  of  this  Summary. 

1  For  Henry  I.'s  charter,  see  Note  i,  on  page  73. 


422  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

people,  by  which  he  recognized  the  sacredness  of  the  old  English  laws 
for  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  Somewhat  more  than  a  century 
later  this  document  became,  as  we  shall  see,  the  basis  of  the  most 
celebrated  charter  known  in  English  history.  Henry  attempted  im- 
portant reforms  in  the  administration  of  the  laws,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  that  system  which  his  grandson,  Henry  II.,  was  to  develop  and 
establish.  By  these  measures  he  gained  the  title  of  the  "  Lion  of 
Justice,"  who  "made  peace  for  both  man  and  beast."  Furthermore, 
in  an  important  controversy  with  the  Pope  respecting  the  appointment 
of  bishops,1  Henry  obtained  the  right  (i  107)  to  require  that  both  bishops 
and  abbots,  after  taking  possession  of  their  Church  estates,  should  be 
obliged  like  the  barons  to  furnish  troops  for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom. 

But  in  the  next  reign  —  that  of  Stephen  —  the  barons  got  the  upper 
hand,  and  the  king  was  powerless  to  control  them.  They  built  castles 
without  royal  license,  and  from  these  private  fortresses  they  sallied  forth 
to  ravage,  rob,  and  murder  in  all  directions.  Had  that  period  of  terror 
continued  much  longer,  England  would  have  been  torn  to  pieces  by  a 
multitude  of  greedy  tyrants. 

8.  Reforms  of  Henry  II. ;  Scutage ;  Assize  of  Clarendon ; 
Juries;  Institutions  of  Clarendon.  —  With  Henry  II.  the  true  reign 
of  law  begins.  To  cany  out  the  reforms  begun  by  his  grandfather, 
Henry  I.,  the  king  fought  both  barons  and  clergy.  Over  the  first  he 
won  a  complete  and  final  victory ;  over  the  second  he  gained  a  partial 
one. 

Henry  began  his  work  by  pulling  down  the  unlicensed  castles  built 
by  the  "  robber  barons."  But,  according  to  feudal  usage,  the  king  was 
dependent  on  these  very  barons  for  his  cavalry  —  his  chief  armed  force. 
He  resolved  to  make  himself  independent  of  their  reluctant  aid.  To 
do  this  he  offered  to  release  them  from  military  service,  providing  they 
would  pay  a  tax,  called  scutage,  or  shield-money  (ii59).2  The  barons 
gladly  accepted  the  offer.  With  the  money  Henry  was  able  to  hire 
"  mercenaries,"  or  foreign  troops,  to  fight  for  him  abroad,  and,  if  need 
be,  in  England  as  well.  Thus  he  struck  a  great  blow  at  the  power  of 
the  barons,  since  they,  through  disuse  of  arms,  grew  weaker,  while  the 
king  grew  steadily  stronger.  To  complete  the  work,  Henry,  many 
years  later  (1181),  reorganized  the  old  English  national  militia,8  and 
made  it  thoroughly  effective  for  the  defence  of  the  royal  authority. 
For  just  a  hundred  years  (1074-1174)  the  barons  had  been  trying  to 
overthrow  the  government;  under  Henry  II.  the  long  struggle  came  to 
an  end,  and  the  royal  power  triumphed. 

But  in  getting  the  military  control  of  the  kingdom,  Henry  had  won 
only  half  of  the  victory  he  was  seeking ;  to  complete  his  supremacy 

1  See  page  73,  Paragraph  186 
(see 
y  o: 
s,  ir 

ully 

annually. 

3  National  militia:  see  page  50,  Paragraph  121. 


1OU. 

:   the  demand  for  scutage  seems  to  show  that  the  feudal  tenure 


CONSTITUTIONAL   SUMMARY.  423 

over  the  powerful  nobles,  the  king  must  obtain  control  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice. 

In  order  to  do  this  more  effectually,  Henry  issued  the  Assize  of  Clar- 
endon (i  166).  It  was  the  first  true  national  code  of  law  ever  put  forth 
by  an  English  king,  since  previous  codes  had  been  little  more  than 
summaries  of  old  "customs."  The  realm  had  already  been  divided 
into  six  circuits,  having  three  judges  for  each  circuit.  The  Assize  of 
Clarendon  gave  these  judges  power  not  only  to  enter  and  preside  over 
every  county  court,  but  also  over  every  court  held  by  a  baron  on  his 
manor.  This  put  a  pretty  decisive  check  to  the  hitherto  uncontrolled 
baronial  system  of  justice  —  or  injustice  —  with  its  private  dungeons 
and  its  private  gibbets.  It  brought  everything  under  the  eye  of  the 
king's  judges,  so  that  those  who  wished  to  appeal  to  them  could  now 
do  so  without  the  expense,  trouble,  and  danger  of  a  journey  to  the 
royal  palace. 

Again,  it  had  been  the  practice  among  the  Norman  barons  to  settle 
disputes  about  land  by  the  barbarous  method  of  trial  by  battle  ; 1  Henry' 
gave  tenants  the  right  to  have  the  case  decided  by  a  body  of  twelve 
knights  acquainted  with  the  facts. 

In  criminal  cases  a  great  change  was  likewise  effected.  Henceforth 
twelve  men  from  each  hundred,  with  four  from  each  township,  —  sixteen 
at  least,  —  acting  as  a  grand  jury,  were  to  present  all  suspected  criminals 
to  the  circuit  judges.2  The  judges  sent  them  to  the  ordeal ;  8  if  they 
failed  to  pass  it,  they  were  then  punished  by  law  as  convicted  felons ; 
if  they  did  pass  it,  they  were  banished  from  the  kingdom  as  persons  of 
evil  repute.  After  the  abolition  of  the  ordeal  (1215),  a  petty  jury  of 
witnesses  was  allowed  to  testify  in  favor  of  the  accused,  and  clear  them 
if  they  could  from  the  charges  brought  by  the  grand  jury.  If  their  tes- 
timony was  not  decisive,  more  witnesses  were  added  until  twelve  were 
obtained  who.  could  unanimously  decide  one  way  or  the  other.  In  the 
course  of  time  4  this  smaller  body  became  judges  of  the  evidence  for  or 
against  the  accused,  and  thus  the  modern  system  of  trial  by  jury  was 
established. 

These  reforms  had  three  important  results :  (i)  they  greatly  dimin- 
ished the  power  of  the  barons  by  taking  the  administration  of  justice, 
in  large  measure,  out  of  their  hands  ;  (2)  they  established  a  more  uni- 
form system  of  law  ;  (3)  they  brought  large  sums  of  money,  in  the  way 
of  court-fees  and  fines,  into  the  king's  treasury,  and  so  made  him 
stronger  than  ever. 

But  meanwhile  Henry  was  carrying  on  a  still  sharper  battle  in  his 
attempt  to  bring  the  Church  courts  —  which  William  I.  had  separated 
from  the  ordinary  courts  —  under  control  of  the  same  system  of  justice. 
In  these  Church  courts  any  person  claiming  to  belong  to  the  clergy  had 
a  right  to  be  tried.  Such  courts  had  no  power  to  inflict  death,  even 

1  See  page  79,  Paragraph  198. 

1  See  the  Assize  of  Clarendon  (1166)  in  Stubbs's  Select  Charters. 

*  See  page  52,  Paragraph  127. 

*  Certainly  by  1450.     But  as  late  as  the  reign  of  George  I.  juries  were  accustomed  to  bring 
in  verdicts  determined  partly  by  their  own  personal  knowledge  of  the  facts.     See  Taswell- 
Langmead  (revised  ed.),  page  179. 


424  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

for  murder.  In  Stephen's  reign  many  notorious  criminals  had  managed 
to  get  themselves  enrolled  among  the  clergy,  and  had  thus  escaped  the 
hanging  they  deserved.  Henry  was  determined  to  have  all  men  —  in 
the  circle  of  clergy  or  out  of  it  —  stand  equal  before  the  law.  Instead 
of  two  kinds  of  justice,  he  would  have  but  one ;  this  would  not  only 
secure  a  still  higher  uniformity  of  law,  but  it  would  sweep  into  the  king's 
treasury  many  fat  fees  and  fines  which  the  Church  courts  were  then 
getting  for  themselves. 

By  the  laws  entitled  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (1164),  the 
common  courts  were  empowered  to  decide  whether  a  man  claiming  to 
belong  to  the  clergy  should  be  tried  by  the  Church  courts  or  not.  If 
they  granted  him  the  privilege  of  a  Church  court  trial,  they  kept  a  sharp 
watch  on  the  progress  of  the  case;  if  the  accused  was  convicted,  he 
must  then  be  handed  over  to  the  judges  of  the  ordinary  courts,  and 
they  took  especial  pains  to  convince  him  of  the  Bible  truth,  that  "  the 
way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard."  For  a  time  the  Constitutions  were 
rigidly  enforced,  but  in  the  end  Henry  was  forced  to  renounce  them. 
Later,  however,  the  principle  he  had  endeavored  to  set  up  was  fully 
established.1 

The  greatest  result  springing  from  Henry's  efforts  was  the  training 
of  the  people  in  public  affairs,  and  the  definitive  establishment  of  that 
system  of  Common  Law  which  regards  the  people  as  the  supreme  source 
of  both  law  and  government,  and  which  is  directly  and  vitally  connected 
with  the  principle  of  representation  and  of  trial  by  jury.2 

9.  Rise  of  Free  Towns.  —  While  these  important  changes  were 
taking  place,  the  towns  were  growing  in  population  and  wealth.     But 
as  these  towns  occupied  land  belonging  either  directly  to  the  king  or 
to  some  baron,  they  were  subject  to  the  authority  of  one  or  the  other, 
and  so  possessed  no  real  freedom.     In  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  many 
towns   purchased   certain  rights   of  self-government   from   the  king. 
This  power  of  controlling  their  own  affairs  greatly  increased  their  pros- 
perity, and  in  time,   as   we  shall  see,   secured  them  a  voice  in  the 
management  of  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

10.  John's  Loss  of  Normandy ;   Magna  Carta.  —  Up  to  John's 
reign  many  barons  continued  to  hold  large  estates  in  Normandy,  in 
addition  to  those  they  had  acquired  in  England ;  hence  their  interests 
were  divided  between  the  two  countries.     Through  war  John  lost  his 
French  possessions.     Henceforth  the  barons  shut  out  from  Normandy 
came  to  look  upon  England  as  their  true  home.     From  Henry  II. 's 
reign  the  Normans  and  the  English  had  been  gradually  mingling ;  from 
this  time  they  became   practically  one  people.      John's  tyranny  and 
cruelty  brought  their  union  into  sharp,  decisive  action.      The  result 
of  his  greed  for  money,  and  his  defiance  of  all  law,  was  a  tremendous 
insurrection.     Before  this  time  the  people  had  always  taken  the  side  of 

1  Edward  I.  limited  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  courts  to  purely  spiritual  cases,  such  as 
heresy  and  the  like;  but  the  work  which  he,  following  the  example  of  Henry  II.,  had  under- 
taken, was  not  fully  accomplished  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

2  See,  on  this  point,  Green's  Henry  II.,  in  the  "  English  Statesmen  "  Series. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  425 

the  king  against  the  barons ;  now,  with  equal  reason,  they  turned  about 
and  rose  with  the  barons  against  the  king. 

Under  the  guidance  of  Archbishop  Langton,  barons,  clergy,  and 
people  demanded  reform.  The  archbishop  brought  out  the  half- 
forgotten  charter  of  Henry  I.  This  now  furnished  a  model  for  Magna 
Carta,  or  the  "  Great  Charter  of  the  Liberties  of  England."  1 

It  contained  nothing  that  was  new  in  principle.  It  was  simply  a 
clearer,  fuller,  stronger  statement  of  those  "rights  of  Englishmen 
which  were  already  old." 

John,  though  wild  with  rage,  did  not  dare  refuse  to  affix  his  royal 
seal  to  the  Great  Charter  of  1215.  By  doing  so  he  solemnly  guaran- 
teed :  (i)  the  rights  of  the  Church  ;  (2)  those  of  the  barons  ;  (3)  those 
of  all  freemen ;  (4)  those  of  the  villeins,  or  farm-laborers.  The  value 
of  this  charter  to  the  people  at  large  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  nearly 
one-third  of  its  sixty-three  articles  were  inserted  in  their  behalf.  Of 
these  articles,  the  most  important  was  that  which  declared  that  no  man 
should  be  deprived  of  liberty  or  property,  or  injured  in  body  or  estate, 
save  by  the  judgment  of  his  equals  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

In  regard  to  taxation,  the  Charter  provided  that,  except  the  customary 
feudal  "aids,"2  none  should  be  levied  unless  by  the  consent  of  the 
National  Council.  Finally,  the  Charter  expressly  provided  that  twenty- 
five  barons  —  one  of  whom  was  mayor  of  London  —  should  be  appointed 
to  compel  the  king  to  carry  out  his  agreement. 

11.  Henry  III.  and  the  Great  Charter ;  the  Forest  Charter ; 
Provisions  of  Oxford ;  Rise  of  the  House  of  Commons ;  Impor- 
tant Land  Laws.  —  Under  Henry  III.  the  Great  Charter  was  reissued. 
But  the  important  articles  which  forbade  the  king  to  levy  taxes  except 
by  consent  of  the  National  Council,  together  with  some  others  restrict- 
ing his  power  to  increase  his  revenue,  were  dropped,  and  never  again 
restored.8 

On  the  other  hand,  Henry  was  obliged  to  issue  a  Forest  Charter, 
based  on  certain  articles  of  Magna  Carta,  which  declared  that  no  man 
should  lose  life  or  limb  for  hunting  in  the  royal  forests. 

Though  the  Great  Charter  was  now  shorn  of  some  of  its  safeguards 
to  liberty,  yet  it  was  still  so  highly  prized  that  its  confirmation  was  pur- 
chased at  a  high  price  from  successive  sovereigns.  Down  to  the  second 
year  of  Henry  VI. 's  reign  (1423),  we  find  that  it  had  been  confirmed 
no  less  than  thirty-seven  times. 

Notwithstanding  his  solemn  oath,4  the  vain  and  worthless  Henry  III. 
deliberately  violated  the  provisions  of  the  Charter,  in  order  to  raise 
money  to  waste  in  his  foolish  foreign  wars  or  on  his  court  circle  of 
French  favorites. 

Finally  (1258),  a  body  of  armed  barons,  led  by  Simon  de  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  forced  the  king  to  summon  a  Parliament  at  Oxford. 

1  Magna  Carta:   see  Constitutional  Documents,  page  443. 

*  For  the  three  customary  Feudal  Aids,  see  page  80,  Paragraph  200. 

*  See  Stubbs's  Select  Charters  (Edward  I.),  page  484;  but  compare  Note  i  on  page  443. 

*  See  page  112,  Paragraph  262. 


426  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

There  a  scheme  of  reform,  called  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  was  adopted. 
By  these  Provisions,  which  Henry  swore  to  observe,  the  government 
was  practically  taken  out  of  the  king's  hands,  —  at  least  as  far  as  he 
had  power  to  do  mischief,  —  and  entrusted  to  certain  councils  or  com- 
mittees of  state. 

A  few  years  later,  Henry  refused  to  abide  by  the  Provisions  of  Oxford, 
and  civil  war  broke  out.  De  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  gained  a 
decisive  victory  at  Lewes,  and  captured  the  king.  The  earl  then  sum- 
moned a  National  Council,  made  up  of  those  who  favored  his  policy  of 
reform.  This  was  the  famous  Parliament  of  1265.  To  it  De  Montfort 
summoned:  (i)  a  small  number  of  barons;  (2)  a  large  number  of  the 
higher  clergy ;  (3)  two  knights,  or  country  gentlemen,  from  each  shire  ; 
(4)  two  burghers,  or  citizens,  from  every  town. 

The  knights  of  the  shire  had  been  summoned  to  Parliament  before;1 
but  this  was  the  first  time  that  the  towns  had  been  invited  to  send 
representatives.  By  that  act  the  earl  set  the  example  of  giving  the 
people  at  large  a  fuller  share  in  the  government  than  they  had  yet  had. 
To  De  Montfort,  therefore,  justly  belongs  the  glory  of  being  "the 
founder  of  the  House  of  Commons  " ;  though  owing,  perhaps,  to  his 
death  shortly  afterward  at  the  battle  of  Evesham  (1265),  the  regular 
and  continuous  representation  of  the  towns  did  not  begin  until  thirty 
years  later. 

Meanwhile  (1279-1290),  three  land  laws  of  great  importance  were 
enacted.  The  first  limited  the  acquisition  of  landed  property  by  the 
Church ; z  the  second  encouraged  the  transmission  of  land  by  will  to 
the  eldest  son,  thus  keeping  estates  together  instead  of  breaking  them 
up  among  several  heirs ; 8  the  third  made  purchasers  of  estates  the 
direct  feudal  tenants  of  the  king.4  The  object  of  these  three  laws  was 
to  prevent  landholders  from  evading  their  feudal  obligations ;  hence 
they  decidedly  strengthened  the  royal  power.5 

12.  Ed-ward  I.'s  "Model  Parliament";  Confirmation  of  the 
Charters.  —  In  1295,  Edward  I.,  one  of  the  ablest  men  that  ever  sat 
on  the  English  throne,  adopted  De  Montfort's  scheme  of  representation. 
The  king  was  greatly  pressed  for  money,  and  his  object  was  to  get  the 
help  of  the  towns,  and  thus  secure  a  system  of  taxation  which  should 
include  all  classes.  With  the  significant  words,  "  that  which  toucheth 
all  should  be  approved  by  all,"  he  summoned  to  Westminster  the  first 
really  complete,  or  "Model  Parliament,"6  consisting  of  King,  Lords 

1  They  were  first  summoned  by  John,  in  1213. 

3  Statute  of  Mortmain  (1279)  :  see  page  120,  Paragraph  278.  It  was  especially  directed 
against  the  acquisition  of  land  by  monasteries. 

3  Statute  De  Donis  Conditionalibus  (or  of  Westminster  II.)  (1285):  see  page  119,  Para- 
graph 277. 

4  Statute  of  Quia  Emptores  (1290)  :  see  page  119,  Paragraph  277. 

8  During  the  same  period  the  Statute  of  Winchester  (1285)  reorganized  the  national  militia 
and  the  police  system.  See  page  119,  Paragraph  276. 

6  De  Montfort's  Parliament  was  not  wholly  lawful  and  regular,  because  not  voluntarily 
summoned  by  the  King  himself.  Parliament  must  be  summoned  by  the  sovereign,  opened 
by  the  sovereign  (in  person  or  by  commission) ;  all  laws  require  the  sovereign's  signature 
to  complete  them;  and  finally,  Parliament  can  be  suspended  or  dissolved  by  the  sovereign 
only. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  427 

(temporal  and  spiritual),  and  Commons.1  The  form  Parliament  then 
received  it  has  kept  substantially  ever  since.  We  shall  see  how  from 
this  time  the  Commons  gradually  grew  in  influence,  —  though  with 
periods  of  relapse,  —  until  at  length  they  have  become  the  controlling 
power  in  legislation. 

Ten  years  after  the  meeting  of  the  "  Model  Parliament,"  in  order  to 

fet  money  to  carry  on  a  war  with  France,  Edward  levied  a  tax  on  the 
arons,  and  seized  a  large  quantity  of  wool  belonging  to  the  merchants. 
So  determined  was  the  resistance  to  these  acts  that  civil  war  was 
threatened.  In  order  to  avert  it,  the  king  was  obliged  to  summon  a 
Parliament  (1297),  and  to  sign  a  confirmation  of  both  the  Great  Charter 
and  the  Forest  Charter.  He  furthermore  bound  himself  in  thft  most 
solemn  manner  not  to  tax  his  subjects  or  seize  their  goods  without  their 
consent.  Henceforth  Parliament  alone  was  considered  to  hold  control 
of  the  nation's  purse  ;  and  although  this  principle  was  afterward  evaded, 
no  king  openly  denied  its  binding  force. 

13.  Division  of  Parliament  into  Two  Houses ;  Growth  of 
the  Power  of  the  Commons  ;  Legislation  by  Statute ;  Impeach- 
ment; Power  over  the  Purse. —  In  Edward's  reign  a  great  change 
occurred  in  Parliament.  The  knights  of  the  shire  (about  1343)  2  joined 
the  representatives  from  the  towns,  and  began  to  sit  apart  from  the 
Lords  as  a  distinct  House  of  Commons.  This  union  gave  that  house  a 
new  character,  and  invested  it  with  a  power  in  Parliament  which  the 
representation  from  the  towns  alone  could  not  have  exerted.  But 
though  thus  strengthened,  the  Commons  did  not  venture  to  claim  an 
equal  part  with  the  Lords  in  framing  laws.  Their  attitude  was  that  of 
humble  petitioners.  When  they  had  voted  the  supplies  of  money  which 
the  king  asked  for,  the  Commons  might  then  meekly  beg  for  legislation. 
Even  when  the  king  and  the  lords  assented  to  their  petitions,  the  Com- 
mons often  found  to  their  disappointment  that  the  laws  which  had 
been  promised  did  not  correspond  to  those  for  which  they  had  asked. 
Henry  V.  pledged  his  word  (1414)  that  the  petitions,  when  accepted, 
should  be  made  into  laws  without  any  alteration.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  was  not  effectually  done  until  near  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  (about  I46i).8  Then  the  Commons  succeeded  in  obtaining 
the  right  to  present  proposed  laws  in  the  form  of  regular  bills  instead 
of  petitions.  These  bills  when  enacted  became  statutes  or  acts  of  Par- 
liament, as  we  know  them  to-day.  This  change  was  a  most  important 
one,  since  it  made  it  impossible  for  the  king  with  the  lords  to  fraudu- 
lently defeat  the  expressed  will  of  the  Commons  after  they  had  once 
assented  to  the  legislation  the  Commons  desired. 

Meanwhile  the  Commons  gained,  for  the  first  time  (1376),  the  right 
of  impeaching  such  ministers  of  the  crown  as  they  had  reason  to  believe 

1  The  lower  clergy  were  summoned  to  send  representatives;  but  their  representatives  came 
very  irregularly,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  ceased  coming  altogether.  From  that  time  they 
voted  their  supplies  for  the  Crown  in  Convocation,  until  1663,  when  Convocation  ceased  to 
meet.  The  higher  clergy  —  bishops  and  abbots —  met  with  the  House  of  Lords. 

1  The  exact  date  cannot  be  determined.     Sir  T.  E.  May  thinks  it  was  about  1343. 

8  Exact  date  cannot  be  determined. 


428  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

were  unfaithful  to  the  interests  of  the  people.  This  of  course  put  an 
immense  restraining  power  in  their  hands,  since  they  could  now  make 
the  ministers  responsible,  in  great  measure,  for  the  king.1 

Next  (1406),  the  Commons  insisted  on  having  an  account  rendered 
of  the  money  spent  by  the  king ;  and  at  times  they  even  limited  2  their 
appropriations  of  money  to  particular  purposes.  Finally,  in  1407,  the 
Commons  took  the  most  decided  step  of  all.  They  boldly  demanded 
and  obtained  the  exclusive  right  of  making  all  grants  of  money  required 
by  the  crown.8 

In  future  the  king  —  unless  he  violated  the  law  —  had  to  look  to  the 
Commons  —  that  is,  to  the  direct  representation  of  the  mass  of  the 
people*—  for  his  chief  supplies.  This  made  the  will  of  the  Commons 
more  powerful  than  it  had  ever  been. 

14.  Religious    Legislation ;    Emancipation    of    the    Villeins ; 
Disfranchisement  of  County  Electors.  —  While  these  reforms  were 
taking  place,  two  statutes  had  been  enacted,  —  that  of  Provisors  (1350)  4 
and  of  Praemunire  (1353  and  1393), 5  —  limiting  the  power  of  the  Pope 
over  the  English  Church.     On  the  other  hand,  the  rise  of  the  Lollards 
had  caused  a  statute  to  be  passed  (1401)  against  heretics,  and  under  it 
the  first  martyr  had  been  burned  in  England.     During  this  period  the 
villeins  had  risen  in  insurrection  (1381),  and  were  gradually  gaining 
their  liberty.     Thus  a  very  large  body  of  people  who  had  been  practi- 
cally excluded  from  political  rights  now  began  to  slowly  acquire  them.6 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  a  statute  was  enacted  (1430)  which  prohibited 
all  persons  having  an  income  of  less  than  forty  shillings  a  year — or 
what  would  be  equal  to  forty  pounds  at  the  present  value  of  money  — 
from  voting  for  knights  of  the  shire.     The  consequence  was  that  the 
poorer  and  humbler  classes  in  the  country  were  no  longer  directly 
represented  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

15.  "Wars    of    the    Roses ;    Decline    of    Parliament ;    Partial 
Revival  of  its  Power  under  Elizabeth.  —  The  Civil  Wars  of  the 
Roses  (1455-1485)  gave  a  decided  check  to  the  further  development  of 
parliamentary  power.     Many  noble  families  were  ruined  by  the  pro- 
tracted struggle,  and  the  new  nobles  created  by  the  king  were  pledged 
to  uphold  the  interests  of  the  crown.     Furthermore,  numerous  towns 
absorbed  in  their  own  local  affairs  ceased  to  elect  members  to  the 
Commons.     Thus,  with  a  House  of  Lords  on  the  side  of  royal  authority, 
and  with  a  House  of  Commons  diminished  in  numbers  and  in  influence, 
the  decline  of  the  independent  attitude  of  Parliament  was  inevitable. 

1  But  after  1450  the  Commons  ceased  to  exercise  the  right  of  impeachment  until  1621,  when 
they  impeached  Lord  Bacon  and  others. 

'The  Commons  dropped  the  right  of  appropriating  money  for  specific  objects,  —  except  in 
a  single  instance  under  Henry  VI.,  —  and  did  not  revive  it  until  1624. 

3  This  right 'the  Commons  never  surrendered. 

*  Provisors:  this  was  a  law  forbidding  the  Pope  to  provide  any  person  (by  anticipation) 
with  a  position  in  the  English  Church  until  the  death  of  the  incumbent. 

6Prsemunire:  see  Constitutional  Documents,  page  446.  Practically,  neither  the  law  of 
Provisors  nor  of  Praemunire  was  strictly  enforced  until  Henry  VIII. 's  reign. 

6  Villeins  appear,  however,  to  have  had  the  right  of  voting  for  knights  of  the  shire  until 
the  statute  of  1430  disfranchised  them. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  429 

The  result  of  these  changes  was  very  marked.  From  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  to  that  of  Elizabeth  —  a  period  of  about  two  hundred 
years  —  "the  voice  of  Parliament  was  rarely  heard."  The  Tudors 
practically  set  up  a  new  or  "  personal  monarchy,"  in  which  their  will 
rose  above  both  Parliament  and  the  constitution;1  and  Henry  VII., 
instead  of  asking  the  Commons  for  money,  extorted  it  in  fines  enforced 
by  his  Court  of  Star  Chamber,  or  compelled  his  wealthy  subjects  to 
grant  it  to  him  in  "benevolences"2  —  those  "loving  contributions," 
as  the  king  called  them,  "  lovingly  advanced." 

During  this  period  England  laid  claim  to  a  new  continent,  and 
Henry  VIII.,  repudiating  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  declared  himself 
the  "supreme  head"  (1535)  of  the  English  Catholic  Church.  In  the 
next  reign  (Edward  VI.)  the  Catholic  worship,  which  had  existed  in 
England  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  was  abolished  (1540),  and  the 
Protestant  faith  became  henceforth  —  except  during  Mary's  short  reign 
—  the  established  religion  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  enforced  by  two  Acts 
of  Uniformity  (1549,  1552).  One  effect  of  the  overthrow  of  Catholicism 
was  to  change  the  character  of  the  House  of  Lords,  by  reducing  the 
number  of  spiritual  lords  from  a  majority  to  a  minority,  as  they  have 
ever  since  remained.8 

At  the  beginning  of  Elizabeth's  reign  the  Second  Act  of  Supremacy 
(1559)  snut  out  a^  Catholics  from  the  House  of  Commons.4  Protestant- 
ism was  fully  and  finally  established  as  the  state  religion,5  embodied  in 
the  creed  known  as  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (1563)  ;  and  by  the  Third 
Act  of  Uniformity  (1559)  very  severe  measures  were  taken  against 
all  —  whether  Catholics  or  Puritans  —  who  refused  to  conform  to  the 
Episcopal  mode  of  worship.  The  High  Commission  Court  was  organ- 
ized (1583)  to  try  and  punish  heretics  —  whether  Catholics  or  Puritans. 
The  great  number  of  paupers  caused  by  the  destruction  of  the  monas- 
teries under  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  gradual  decay  of  relations  of  feudal 
service,  caused  the  passage  of  the  first  Poor  Law  (1601),  and  so  brought 
the  government  face  to  face  with  a  problem  which  has  never  yet  been 
satisfactorily  settled ;  namely,  what  to  do  with  habitual  paupers  and 
tramps. 

The  closing  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign  marks  the  revival  of  parlia- 
mentary power.  The  House  of  Commons  now  had  many  Puritan  mem- 
bers, and  they  did  not  hesitate  to  assert  their  right  to  advise  the  queen 
on  all  questions  of  national  importance.  Elizabeth  sharply  rebuked 
them  for  presuming  to  meddle  with  questions  of  religion,  or  for  urging 
her  either  to  take  a  husband  or  to  name  a  successor  to  the  throne;  but 
even  she  did  not  venture  to  run  directly  counter  to  the  will  of  the 
people.  When  the  Commons  demanded  (1601)  that  she  should  put 

1  Theoretically  Henry  VII. 's  power  was  restrained  by  certain  checks  (see  page  181,  Note  i) ; 
and  even  Henry  VIII.  generally  ruled  according  to  the  letter  of  the  law,  however  much  he 
may  have  violated  its  spirit.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  it  was  under  Henry  VIII.  (1541)  that 
Parliament  first  formally  claimed  freedom  of  speech  as  one  of  its  "  undoubted  privileges." 

3  Benevolence:  see  pages  169,  182.        s  See  page  224,  Note  2.        *  See  pages  211,  212. 

•  By  the  Third  Act  of  Uniformity  and  the  establishment  of  the  High  Commission  Court; 
see  page  211.  The  First  and  Second  Acts  of  Uniformity  were  enacted  under  Edward  VI. 


43O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

a  stop  to  the  pernicious  practice  of  granting  trading  monopolies 1  to 
her  favorites,  she  was  obliged  to  yield  her  assent. 

16.  James  I. ;  the  "  Divine  Right  of  Kings " ;  Struggle  with 
Parliament.  —  James  began  his  reign  by  declaring  that  kings  rule  not 
by  the  will  of  the  people,  but  by  "divine  right."  "God  makes  the 
king,"  said  he,  "and  the  king  makes  the  law."  For  this  reason  he 
demanded  that  his  proclamations  should  have  all  the  force  of  acts  of 
Parliament.  Furthermore,  since  he  appointed  the  judges,  he  could 
generally  get  their  decisions  to  support  him ;  thus  he  made  even  the 
courts  of  justice  serve  as  instruments  of  his  will.  In  his  arrogance  he 
declared  that  neither  Parliament  nor  the  people  had  any  right  to  dis- 
cuss matters  of  state,  whether  foreign  or  domestic,  since  he  Was  resolved 
to  reserve  such  questions  for  the  royal  intellect  to  deal  with.  By  his 
religious  intolerance  he  maddened  both  Puritans  and  Catholics,  and 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  fled  from  England  to  escape  his  tyranny. 

But  there  was  a  limit  set  to  his  overbearing  conceit.  When  he 
dictated  to  the  Commons  (1604)  what  persons  should  sit  in  that  body, 
they  indignantly  refused  to  submit  to  any  interference  on  his  part,  and 
their  refusal  was  so  emphatic  that  James  never  brought  up  the  matter 
again. 

The  king,  however,  was  so  determined  to  shut  out  members  whom 
he  did  not  like  that  he  attempted  to  gain  his  ends  by  having  such 
persons  seized  on  charge  of  debt  and  thrown  into  prison.  The  Com- 
mons, on  the  other  hand,  not  only  insisted  that  their  ancient  privilege 
of  exemption  from  arrest  in  such  cases  should  be  respected,  but  they 
passed  a  special  law  (1604)  to  clinch  the  privilege. 

Ten  years  later  (1614)  James,  pressed  for  money,  called  a  Parliament 
to  get  supplies.  He  had  taken  precautions  to  get  a  majority  of  mem- 
bers elected  who  would,  he  hoped,  vote  him  what  he  wanted.  But  to 
his  dismay  the  Commons  declined  to  grant  him  a  penny  unless  he  would 
promise  to  cease  imposing  illegal  duties  on  merchandise.  The  king 
angrily  refused,  and  dissolved  the  Parliament.2 

Finally,  in  order  to  show  James  that  it  would  not  be  trifled  with,  a 
later  Parliament  (1621)  revived  the  right  of  impeachment,  which  had 
not  been  resorted  to  since  I45o.3  The  Commons  now  charged  Lord 
Chancellor  Bacon,  judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  and  "  keeper 
of  the  king's  conscience,"  with  accepting  bribes.  Bacon  held  the 
highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  crown,  and  the  real  object  of  the  impeach- 
ment was  to  strike  the  king  through  the  person  of  his  chief  official  and 
supporter.  Bacon  confessed  his  crime,  saying:  "I  was  the  justest 
judge  that  was  in  England  these  fifty  years,  but  it  was  the  justest  cen- 
sure in  Parliament  that  was  these  two  hundred  years." 

James  tried  his  best  to  save  his  servile  favorite,  but  it  was  useless, 
and  Bacon  was  convicted,  disgraced,  and  punished. 

1  Monopolies:  see  pages  214,  215. 

2  This  Parliament  was  nicknamed  the  "  Addled  Parliament,"  because  it  did  not  enact  a 
single  law,  though  it  most  effectually  "  addled  "  the  King's  plans. 

3  See  Paragraph  13  of  this  Summary. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  43  I 

The  Commons  of  the  same  Parliament  petitioned  the  king  against 
the  alleged  growth  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  the  kingdom,  and  espe- 
cially against  the  proposed  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  a  Spanish 
Catholic  princess.  James  ordered  the  Commons  to  let  mysteries  of 
state  alone.  They  claimed  liberty  of  speech.  The  king  asserted  that 
they  had  no  liberties  except  such  as  the  royal  power  saw  fit  to  grant. 
Then  the  Commons  drew  up  their  famous  Protest,  in  which  they 
declared  that  their  liberties  were  not  derived  from  the  king,  but  were 
"  the  ancient  and  undoubted  birthright  and  inheritance  of  the  people  of 
England."  In  his  rage  James  ordered  the  journal  of  the  Commons 
to  be  brought  to  him,  tore  out  the  Protest  with  his  own  hand,  and  sent 
five  of  the  members  of  the  House  to  prison.  This  rash  act  made  the 
Commons  more  determined  than  ever  not  to  yield  to  arbitrary  power. 
James  died  three  years  later,  leaving  his  unfortunate  son  Charles  to 
settle  the  angry  controversy  he  had  raised. 

17.  Charles  I.;  Forced  Loans ;  the  Petition  of  Right.  —  Charles  I. 
came  to  the  throne  full  of  his  father's  lofty  ideas  of  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings  to  govern  as  they  pleased.  In  private  life  he  was  conscientious, 
but  in  his  public  policy  he  was  a  man  "  of  dark  and  crooked  ways." 

He  had  married  a  French  Catholic  princess,  and  the  Puritans,  who 
were  now  very  strong  in  the  House  of  Commons,  believed  that  the  king 
secretly  sympathized  with  the  queen's  religion.  This  was  not  the  case ; 
for  Charles,  after  his  peculiar  fashion,  was  a  sincere  Protestant,  though 
he  favored  the  introduction  into  the  English  Church  of  some  of  the 
ceremonies  peculiar  to  Catholic  worship. 

The  Commons  showed  their  distrust  of  the  king  by  voting  him  the 
tax  of  tonnage  and  poundage 1  for  a  single  year  only,  instead  of  for  life, 
as  had  been  their  custom.  The  Lords  refused  to  assent  to  such  a  limited 
grant,2  and  Charles  deliberately  collected  the  tax  without  the  authority 
of  Parliament.  Failing,  however,  to  get  a  sufficient  supply  in  that  way, 
the  king  forced  men  of  property  to  grant  him  "  benevolences,"  and  to 
loan  him  large  sums  of  money  with  no  hope  of  its  return.  Those  who 
dared  to  refuse  were  thrown  into  prison  on  some  pretended  charge,  or 
had  squads  of  brutal  soldiers  quartered  in  their  houses. 

When  even  these  measures  failed  to  supply  his  wants,  Charles  was 
forced  to  summon  a  Parliament,  and  ask  for  help.  Instead  of  granting 
it,  the  Commons  drew  up  the  Petition  of  Right8  of  1628,  as  an  indig- 
nant remonstrance,  and  as  a  safeguard  against  further  acts  of  tyranny. 
This  petition  has  been  called  "  the  Second  Great  Charter  of  the  Liberties 
of  England."  It  declared  :  I,  That  no  one  should  be  compelled  to  pay 
any  tax  or  to  supply  the  king  with  money,  except  by  order  of  act  of 
Parliament;  2,  that  neither  soldiers  nor  sailors  should  be  quartered  in 
private  houses ;  *  3,  that  no  one  should  be  imprisoned  or  punished 
contrary  to  law.  Charles  was  forced  by  his  need  of  money  to  assent  to 

1  Tonnage  and  poundage :  certain  duties  levied  on  wine  and  merchandise. 

1  See  Taswell-Langmead  (revised  ed.),  page  557,  Note. 

8  Petition  of  Right:  see  Constitutional  Documents,  page  443. 

4  The  King  was  also  deprived  of  the  power  to  press  citizens  into  the  army  and  navy. 


432  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

this  petition,  which  thus  became  a  most  important  part  of  the  English 
constitution.  But  the  king  did  not  keep  his  word.  When  Parliament 
next  met  (1629),  it  refused  to  grant  money  unless  Charles  would  renew 
his  pledge  not  to  violate  the  law.  The  king  made  some  concessions, 
but  finally  resolved  to  adjourn  Parliament.  Several  members  of  the 
Commons  held  the  Speaker  in  the  chair,  by  force  —  thus  preventing  the 
adjournment  of  the  House  —  until  resolutions  offered  by  Sir  John  Eliot 
were  passed.  These  resolutions  were  aimed  directly  at  the  king.  They 
declared:  I.  That  he  is  a  traitor  who  attempts  any  change  in  the 
established  religion  of  the  kingdom;1  2,  who  levies  any  tax  not  voted 
by  Parliament ;  3,  or  who  voluntarily  pays  such  a  tax.  Parliament  then 
adjourned. 

18.  "Thorough";  Ship-Money ;  the  Short  Parliament.  —  The 
king   swore  that  "the  vipers"  who  opposed  him   should   have   their 
reward.     Eliot  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  kept  there  till  he   died. 
Charles  made  up  his  mind  that,  with  the  help  of  Archbishop  Laud  in 
Church  matters,  and  of  Lord  Strafford  in  affairs  of  state,  he  would  rule 
without  Parliaments.     Strafford  urged  the  king  to  adopt  the  policy  of 
"  Thorough  " ; 2  in  other  words,  to  follow  the  bent  of  his   own  will 
without  consulting  the  will  of  the  nation.     This,  of  course,  practically 
meant  the  overthrow  of  parliamentary  and  constitutional  government. 
Charles  heartily  approved  of  this  plan  for  setting  up  what  he  called 
a  "beneficent  despotism"  based  on  "  Divine  Right." 

The  king  now  resorted  to  various  illegal  means  to  obtain  supplies. 
The  last  device  he  hit  upon  was  that  of  raising  ship-money.  To  do 
this,  he  levied  a  tax  on  all  the  counties  of  England.  —  inland  as  well  as 
seaboard,  —  on  the  pretext  that  he  purposed  bunding  a  navy  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom.  John  Hampden  refused  to  pay  the  tax,  but 
Charles's  servile  judges  decided  against  him,  when  the  case  was  brought 
into  court. 

Charles  ruled  without  a  Parliament  for  eleven  years.  He  might,  per- 
haps, have  gone  on  in  this  way  for  as  many  more,  had  he  not  provoked 
the  Scots  to  rebel  by  attempting  to  force  a  modified  form  of  the  English 
Prayer-Book  on  the  Church  of  that  country.  The  necessities  of  the 
war  with  the  Scots  compelled  the  king  to  call  a  Parliament.  It  declined 
to  grant  the  king  money  to  carry  on  the  war  unless  he  would  give  some 
satisfactory  guarantee  of  governing  according  to  the  will  of  the  people. 
Charles  refused  to  do  this,  and  after  a  three  weeks'  session  he  dissolved 
what  was  known  as  the  "  Short  Parliament." 

19.  The    "Long  Parliament";  the  Civil   "War.  —  But  the  war 
gave  Charles  no  choice,  and  before  the  year  was  out  he  was  obliged  to 
call  the  famous  "Long  Parliament"  of  1640. 8     That  body  met,  with 

1  The  Puritans  generally  believed  that  the  King  wished  to  restore  the  Catholic  religion  as 
the  established  Church  of  England,  but  in  this  idea  they  were  mistaken. 

*"  Thorough":  Strafford  wrote  to  Laud,  "You  may  govern  as  you  please.  ...  I  am 
confident  that  the  King  is  able  to  carry  any  just  and  honorable  action  thorough  [i.e.  through 
or  against]  all  imaginable  opposition.  Both  Strafford  and  Laud  used  this  word  "  thorough," 
in  this  sense,  to  designate  their  tyrannical  policy. 

3  The  Long  Parliament:  it  sat  from  1640  to  1653,  and  was  not  finally  dissolved  until  1660. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  433 

the  firm  determination  to  restore  the  liberties  of  Englishmen  or  to 
perish  in  the  attempt,  i.  It  impeached  Strafford  and  Laud,  and  sent 
them  to  the  scaffold  as  traitors.1  2.  It  swept  away  those  instruments 
of  royal  oppression,  the  Court  of  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commis- 
sion Court.2  3.  It  expelled  the  bishops  from  the  House  of  Lords. 
4.  It  passed  the  Triennial  Bill,  compelling  the  king  to  summon  a  Par- 
liament at  least  once  in  three  years.8  5.  It  also  passed  a  law  declaring 
that  the  king  could  not  suspend  or  dissolve  Parliament  without  its  con- 
sent. 6.  Last  of  all,  the  Commons  drew  up  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
enunciating  at  great  length  the  grievances  of  the  last  sixteen  years,  and 
vehemently  appealing  to  the  people  to  support  them  in  their  attempts 
at  reform.  The  Remonstrance  was  printed  and  distributed  throughout 
England.4 

About  a  month  later  (1642),  the  king,  at  the  head  of  an  armed  force, 
undertook  to  seize  Hampden,  Pym,  and  three  other  of  the  most  active 
members  of  the  Commons  on  a  charge  of  treason.  The  attempt  failed. 
Soon  afterward  the  Commons  passed  the  Militia  Bill,  and  thus  took 
the  command  of  the  national  militia  and  of  the  chief  fortresses  of  the 
realm,  "  to  hold,"  as  they  said,  "  for  king  and  Parliament."  The  act  was  • 
unconstitutional ;  but,  after  the  attempted  seizure  of  the  five  members, 
the  Commons  felt  certain  that  if  they  left  the  command  of  the  militia 
in  the  king's  hands,  they  would  simply  sign  their  own  death-warrant. 

In  resentment  at  this  action,  Charles  now  (1642)  began  the  civil  war. 
It  resulted  in  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  in  the  temporary  over- 
throw of  the  monarchy,  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  established  Epis- 
copal Church.  In  place  of  the  monarchy,  the  party  in  power  set  up 
a  short-lived  Puritan  Republic.  This  was  followed  by  the  Protectorate 
of  Oliver  Cromwell  and  that  of  his  son  Richard. 

20.  Charles  II. ;  Abolition  of  Feudal  Tenure ;  Establishment 
of  a  Standing  Army.  —  In  1660  the  people,  weary  of  the  Protectorate 
form  of  government,  welcomed  the  return  of  Charles  II.  His  coming 
marks  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  of 
the  National  Episcopal  Church. 

A  great  change  was  now  effected  in  the  source  of  the  king's  revenue. 
Hitherto  it  had  sprung  largely  from  feudal  dues.  These  had  long  been 
difficult  to  collect,  because  the  feudal  system  had  practically  died  out. 
The  feudal  land  tenure  with  its  dues  was  now  abolished,  —  a  reform, 
says  Blackstone,  greater  even  than  that  of  Magna  Carta,  —  and  in  their 
place  a  tax  was  levied  for  a  fixed  sum.  This  tax  should  in  justice 
have  fallen  on  the  landowners,  who  profited  by  the  change ;  but  they 
managed  to  evade  it,  in  great  measure,  and  by  getting  it  levied  on  beer 

1  Charles  assured  Strafford  that  Parliament  should  not  touch  "  a  hair  of  his  head";  but  to 
save  himself  the  King  signed  the  Bill  of  Attainder  (see  p.  446) ,  which  sent  his  ablest  and  most 
faithful  servant  to  the  block.     Well  might  Strafford  exclaim,  "  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes." 

2  On  the  Court  of  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commission  Court,  see  pages   183,  211 
(Note  i),  and  224. 

3  The  Triennial  Act  was  repealed  in  1664,  and  re-enacted  in  1694.     In  1716  the  Septennial 


Act  increased  the  limit  of  three  years  to  seven.     This  act  is  still  in  force. 

4  The  press  soon  became,  for  the  first  time,  a  most  active  agent  of  political  agitation, 
for  and  against  the  King.     See  page  244,  Paragraph  495. 


both 


434  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

and  some  other  liquors,  they  forced  the  working  classes  to  shoulder  the 
chief  part  of  the  burden,  which  they  still  continue  to  carry. 

Parliament  now  restored  the  command  of  the  militia  to  the  king ; J 
and,  for  the  first  time  in  English  history,  it  also  gave  him  the  command 
of  a  standing  army  of  5000  men  —  thus,  in  one  way,  making  him  more 
powerful  than  ever  before. 

On  the  other  hand,  Parliament  revived  the  practice  of  limiting  its 
appropriations  of  money  to  specific  purposes.2  It  furthermore  began 
to  require  an  exact  account  of  how  the  king  spent  the  money  —  a  most 
embarrassing  question  for  Charles  to  answer.  Again,  Parliament  did 
not  hesitate  to  impeach  and  remove  the  king's  ministers  whenever  they 
forfeited  the  confidence  of  that  body.8 

The  religious  legislation  of  this  period  marks  the  strong  reaction 
from  Puritanism  which  had  set  in.  I.  The  Corporation  Act  (1661) 
excluded  all  persons  who  did  not  renounce  the  Puritan  Covenant,  and 
partake  of  the  Sacrament  according  to  the  Church  of  England,  from 
holding  municipal  or  other  corporate  offices.  2.  The  Fourth  Act  of 
Uniformity 4  required  all  clergymen  to  accept  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  of  (1662)  the  Church  of  England.  The  result  of  this  law  was 
that  no  less  than  2000  Puritan  ministers  were  driven  from  their  pulpits 
in  a  single  day.  3.  A  third  act  of  Parliament  followed5  which  forbade  the 
preaching  or  hearing  of  Puritan  doctrines,  under  severe  penalties.  4.  A 
later  act 6  prohibited  nonconforming  clergymen  from  teaching,  or  from 
coming  within  five  miles  of  any  corporate  town  (except  when  travelling). 

21.  Origin  of  Cabinet  Government ;  the  Secret  Treaty  of 
Dover ;  the  Test  Act ;  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  —  Charles  made 
a  great  and  most  important  change  with  respect  to  the  Privy  Council. 
Instead  of  consulting  the  entire  council  on  matters  of  state,  he  estab- 
lished the  custom  of  inviting  a  few  only  to  meet  with  him  in  his  cabinet 
or  private  room.  This  limited  body  of  confidential  advisers  was  called 
the  Cabal  or  secret  council. 

Charles's  great  ambition  was  to  increase  his  standing  army,  to  rule 
independently  of  Parliament,  and  to  get  an  abundance  of  money  to 
spend  on  his  extravagant  pleasures  and  vices. 

In  order  to  accomplish  these  three  ends  he  made  a  secret  and  shame- 
ful treaty  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France  (1670).  Louis  wished  to  crush 
the  Dutch  Protestant  Republic  of  Holland,  to  get  possession  of  Spain, 
and  to  secure,  if  possible,  the  ascendency  of  Catholicism  in  England  as 
well  as  throughout  Europe.  Charles,  who  was  destitute  of  any  religious 
principle, —  or,  in  fact,  of  any  sense  of  honor, —  agreed  to  publicly  declare 
himself  a  Catholic,  to  favor  the  propagation  of  that  faith  in  England, 
and  to  make  war  on  Holland  in  return  for  very  liberal  grants  of  money, 
and  for  the  loan  of  6000  French  troops  by  Louis,  to  help  him  put  down 

1  See  Militia  Bill,  Paragraph  19  of  this  Summary.        2  See  Paragraph  13  of  this  Summary. 

8  See  Paragraph  13  of  this  Summary  (Impeachment). 

4  The  first  and  second  Acts  of  Uniformity  date  from  Edward  VI.  (iS49>  T552) !  *ne  third 
from  Elizabeth  (1559).  5  The  Conventicle  Act  (1664). 

6  The  Five  Mile  Act  (1665).  It  excepted  those  clergymen  who  took  the  oath  of  non- 
resistance  to  the  King,  and  who  swore  not  to  attempt  to  alter  the  constitution  of  Church  or 
State.  See  Hallam. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  435 

any  opposition  in  England.  Two  members  of  the  Cabal  were  acquainted 
with  the  terms  of  this  secret  treaty  of  Dover.1 

Charles  did  not  dare  to  openly  avow  himself  a  convert  —  or  pretended 
convert  —  to  the  Catholic  religion;  but  he  issued  a  Declaration  of 
Indulgence  (1672)  suspending  the  harsh  and  unjust  statute  against  the 
English  Catholics. 

Parliament  took  the  alarm  and  passed  the  Test  Act  (1673),  by  which 
all  Catholics  were  shut  out  from  holding  any  government  office  or  posi- 
tion. This  act  broke  up  the  Cabal,  by  compelling  a  Catholic  nobleman, 
who  was  one  of  its  leading  members,  to  resign.  Later,  Parliament  further 
showed  its  power  by  compelling  the  king  to  sign  the  Act  of  Habeas 
Corpus  (1679),  which  put  an  end  to  his  arbitrarily  throwing  men  into 
prison,  and  keeping  them  there,  in  order  to  stop  their  free  discussion  of 
his  plots  against  the  constitution.2 

But  though  the  Cabal  had  been  broken  up,  the  principle  of  a  limited 
private  council  survived,  and,  after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  it  was 
revived,  and  took  the  name  of  the  Cabinet.  Under  the  leadership  of 
the  prime  minister,  who  is  its  head,  the  Cabinet  has  become  responsible 
for  the  policy  of  the  sovereign.3  Should  Parliament  decidedly  oppose 
that  policy,  the  prime  minister,  with  his  cabinet,  either  resigns,  and  a 
new  cabinet  is  chosen,  or  the  minister  appeals  to  the  people  for  support, 
and  a  new  parliamentary  election  is  held,  by  which  the  nation  decides 
the  question.  This  method  renders  the  old,  and  never  desirable,  remedy 
of  the  impeachment  of  the  ministers  of  the  sovereign  no  longer  necessary. 
The  prime  minister  —  who  answers  for  the  acts  of  the  sovereign  and  for 
his  policy  —  is  more  directly  responsible  to  the  people  than  is  the 
President  of  the  United  States. 

22.  The  Pretended  "  Popish  Plot " ;  Rise  of  the  Whigs  and  the 
Tories;  Revocation  of  Town  Charters.  —  The  pretended  "Popish 
Plot"  (1678)  to  kill  the  king,  in  order  to  place  his  brother  James  —  a 
Catholic  convert  —  on  the  throne,  caused  the  rise  of  a  strong  movement 
(1680)  to  exclude  James  from  the  right  of  succession.  The  Exclusion 
Bill  failed,  but  henceforward  two  prominent  political  parties  appear  in 
Parliament,  —  one,  that  of  the  Whigs  or  Liberals,  bent  on  extending 
the  power  of  the  people  ;  the  other,  that  of  the  Tories  or  Conservatives, 
resolved  to  maintain  the  power  of  the  crown. 

Charles,  of  course,  did  all  in  his  power  to  encourage  the  latter  party. 
In  order  to  strengthen  their  numbers  in  the  Commons,  he  found  pre- 
texts for  revoking  the  charters  of  many  Whig  towns.  He  then  issued 
new  charters  to  these  towns,  giving  the  power  of  election  to  the  Tories.4 
While  engaged  in  this  congenial  work  the  king  died,  and  his  brother 
James  came  to  the  throne. 

1  Charles  signed  a  second  secret  treaty  of  Dover  in  1678. 

1  See  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  Constitutional  Documents,  p.  446. 

3  The  real  efficiency  of  the  Cabinet  system  of  government  was  not  fully  developed  until 
after  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  had  widely  extended  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  thus  made  the 
government  more  directly  responsible  to  the  people.     See,  too,  page  309,  Note  2. 

4  The  right  of  election  in  many  towns  was  then  confined  to  the  town-officers  or  to  a  few  influ- 
ential inhabitants.   This  continued  to  be  the  case  until  the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832. 


436  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

23.  James  II.;  the  Dispensing  Power;  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence; the  Revolution  of  1688.  —  James  II.  was  a  zealous  Catholic, 
and  therefore  naturally  desired  to  secure  freedom  of  worship  in  England 
for  people  of  his  own  faith.     In  his  zeal  he  went  too  far,  and  the  Pope 
expressed  his  disgust  at  the  king's  foolish  rashness.     By  the  exercise 
of  the  dispensing  power 1  he  suspended  the  Test  Act  and  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  in  order  that  Catholics  might  be  relieved  from  the  penal- 
ties imposed  by  these  laws,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them 
civil  and  military  offices,  from  which  the  Test  Act  excluded  them. 
James  also  established  a  new  High  Commission  Court,2  and  made  the 
infamous  Judge  Jeffreys   the   head   of  this   despotic   tribunal.      This 
court  had  the  supervision  of  all  churches  and  institutions  of  education. 
Its  main  object  was  to  further  the  spread  of  Catholicism,  and  to  silence 
those  clergymen  who  preached  against  that  faith.     The  king  appointed 
a  Catholic  president  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  expelled  from 
the  college  all  who  opposed  the  appointment.      Later  he  issued  two 
Declarations  of  Indulgence  (1687,  1688),  in  which  he  proclaimed  uni- 
versal religious  toleration.     It  was  generally  believed  that  under  cover 
of  these  declarations  the  king  intended  to  favor  the  ascendancy  of 
Catholicism.     Seven  bishops,  who  petitioned  for  the  privilege  of  declin- 
ing to  read  the  declarations  from  their  pulpits,  were  imprisoned,  but 
on  their  trial  were  acquitted  by  a  jury  in  full  sympathy  with  them. 

These  acts  of  the  king,  together  with  the  fact  that  he  had  greatly 
increased  the  standing  army,  and  had  stationed  it  just  outside  of 
London,  caused  great  alarm  throughout  England.  The  majority  of 
the  people  of  both  parties  believed  that  James  was  plotting  '  to  subvert 
and  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion  and  the  laws  and  liberties  of  the 
kingdom.'3 

Still,  so  long  as  the  king  remained  childless,  the  nation  was  encour- 
aged by  the  hope  that  James's  sister  Mary  might  succeed  him.  She 
was  known  to  be  a  decided  Protestant,  and  she  had  married  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  the  head  of  the  Protestant  Republic  of  Holland. 
But  the  birth  of  a  son  to  James  (1688)  put  an  end  to  that  hope. 
Immediately  a  number  of  leading  Whigs  and  Tories4  united  in  sending 
an  invitation  to  the  prince  of  Orange  to  come  over  to  England  with  an 
army  to  protect  Parliament  against  the  king  backed  by  his  standing  army. 

24.  William  and  Mary ;  Declaration  of  Right ;  Results  of  the 
Revolution. — William  came  ;  James  fled  to  France.     A  Convention 
Parliament 5  drew  up  a  Declaration  of  Right  which  declared  that  the 

1  This  was  the  exercise  of  the  right,  claimed  by  the  King  as  one  of  his  prerogatives,  of 
exempting  individuals  from  the  penalty  of  certain  laws.  The  King  also  claimed  the  right 
of  suspending  entirely  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence)  one  or  more 
statutes.  Both  these  rights  had  been  exercised,  at  times,  from  a  very  early  date. 

1  New  High  Commission  Court:  see  Note  2,  on  Paragraph  19  of  this  Summary. 

3  See  the  language  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  (Constitutional  Documents),  page  445. 

4  Seven  in  all ;  viz.  the  Earl  of  Derby,  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
Lord  Lumley,  Bishop  Compton  (bishop  of  London),  Admiral  Edward  Russell,  and  Henry 
Sydney. 

*  Convention  Parliament:  it  was  so  called  because  it  was  not  regularly  summoned  by  the 
King  —  he  having  fled  the  country. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  437 

king  had  abdicated,  and  which  therefore  offered  the  crown  to  William 
and  Mary.  They  accepted.  Thus  by  the  bloodless  Revolution  of 
1688  the  English  nation  transferred  the  sovereignty  to  those  who  had 
no  direct  legal  claim  to  it  so  long  as  James  and  his  son  were  living. 
Hence  by  this  act  the  people  deliberately  set  aside  hereditary  succes- 
sion, as  a  binding  rule,  and  revived  the  primitive  English  custom  of 
choosing  such  a  sovereign  as  they  deemed  best.  In  this  sense  the 
uprising  of  1688  was  most  emphatically  a  revolution.  It  made,  as 
Green  has  said,  an  English  monarch  as  much  the  creature  of  an  act  of 
Parliament  as  the  pettiest  tax-gatherer  in  his  realm.  But  it  was  a  still 
greater  revolution  in  another  way,  since  it  gave  a  death-blow  to  the 
direct  "personal  monarchy,1' which  began  with  the  Tudors  two  hun- 
dred years  before.  It  is  true  that  in  George  lll.'s  reign  we  shall  see 
that  power  temporarily  revived,  but  we  shall  never  hear  anything  more 
of  that  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  for  which  one  Stuart  "  lost  his  head,  and 
another,  his  crown."  Henceforth  the  House  of  Commons  will  govern 
England,  although,  as  we  shall  see,  it  will  be  nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  that  House  will  be  able  to  free  itself  from  the  control  of 
either  a  few  powerful  families  on  the  one  hand,  or  that  of  the  crown 
on  the  other. 

25.  Bill  of  Rights;  the  Commons  by  the  Revenue  and  the 
Mutiny  Act  obtain  Complete  Control  over  the  Purse  and  the 
Sword.  —  In  order  to  make  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  people 
unmistakably  clear,  the  Bill  of  Rights  (1689) — an  expansion  of  the 
Declaration  of  Right  —  was  drawn  up.  The  Bill  of  Rights  1  declared  : 
(i)  That  there  should  be  no  suspension  or  change  in  the  laws,  and  no 
taxation  except  by  act  of  Parliament ;  (2)  that  there  should  be  freedom 
of  election  to  Parliament  and  freedom  of  speech  in  Parliament  (both 
rights  that  the  Stuarts  had  attempted  to  control)  ;  (3)  that  the  sovereign 
should  not  keep  a  standing  army,  in  time  of  peace,  except  by  consent 
of  Parliament ;  (4)  that  in  future  no  Roman  Catholic  should  sit  on  the 
English  throne.2 

This  most  important  bill,  having  received  the  signature  of  William 
and  Mary,  became  law.  It  constitutes  the  third  great  written  charter 
or  safeguard  of  English  liberty.  Taken  in  connection  with  Magna 
Carta  and  the  Petition  of  Right,  it  forms,  according  to  Lord  Chatham, 
"  the  Bible  of  the  English  Constitution." 

But  Parliament  had  not  yet  finished  the  work  of  reform  it  had  taken 
in  hand.  The  executive  strength  of  every  government  depends  on  its 
control  of  two  powers,  — the  purse  and  the  sword.  Parliament  had,  as 
we  have  seen,  got  a  tight  grasp  on  the  first,  for  the  Commons,  and  the 
Commons  alone,  could  levy  taxes ;  but  within  certain  very  wide  limits, 
the  personal  expenditure  of  the  sovereign  still  practically  remained  un- 
checked. Parliament  now  (1689)  took  the  decisive  step  of  voting  by 
the  Revenue  Act,  (i)  a  specific  sum  for  the  maintenance  of  the  crown, 
and  (2)  of  voting  this  supply,  not  for  the  life  of  the  sovereign,  as  had 

1  Bill  of  Rights:  see  Constitutional  Documents,  page  445. 

-  This  last  clause  was  reaffirmed  by  the  Act  of  Settlement.    See  page  283,  Note  2,  and  page  446. 


43^  LEADING   FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

been  the  custom,  but  for  four  years.  A  little  later  this  supply  was  fixed 
for  a  single  year  only.  This  action  gave  to  the  Commons  final  and 
complete  control  of  the  purse.1 

Next,  Parliament  passed  the  Mutiny  Act  (i689),2  which  granted  the 
king  power  to  enforce  martial  law  —  in  other  words,  to  maintain  a 
standing  army  —  for  one  year  at  a  time,  and  no  longer  save  by  renewal 
of  the  law.  This  act  gave  Parliament  complete  control  of  the  sword, 
and  thus  finished  the  great  work ;  for  without  the  annual  meeting  and 
the  annual  vote  of  that  body,  an  English  sovereign  would  at  the  end 
of  a  twelvemonth  stand  penniless  and  helpless. 

26.  Reforms   in  the   Courts;   the  Toleration  Act;  the  Press 
made  Free.  —  The   same  year  (1689)  Parliament  effected  great  and 
sorely  needed  reforms  in  the  administration  of  justice.8 

Next,  Parliament  passed  the  Toleration  Act  (1689).  This  measure 
granted  liberty  of  worship  to  all  Protestant  dissenters  except  those  who 
denied  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.4  The  Toleration  Act,  however,  did 
not  abolish  the  Corporation  Act  or  the  Test  Act,6  and  it  granted  no 
religious  freedom  to  Catholics.6  Still,  the  Toleration  Act  was  a  step 
forward,  and  it  prepared  the  way  for  that  absolute  liberty  of  worship 
and  of  religious  belief  which  now  exists  in  England. 

In  finance,  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  was  marked  by  the  prac- 
tical beginning  of  the  permanent  national  debt  and  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Bank  of  England.7 

Now,  too  (1695),  the  English  press,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history, 
became  permanently  free,8  though  hampered  by  a  very  severe  law  of 
libel  and  by  stamp  duties.9  From  this  period  the  influence  of  news- 
papers continued  to  increase,  until  the  final  abolition  of  the  stamp  duty 
(1855)  made  it  possible  to  issue  penny  and  even  half-penny  papers  at 
a  profit.  These  cheap  newspapers  sprang  at  once  into  an  immense 
circulation  among  all  classes,  and  thus  they  became  the  power  for  good 
or  evil,  according  to  their  character,  which  they  are  to-day.  So  that  it 
would  be  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  back  of  the  power  of  Parliament 
now  stands  the  greater  power  of  the  press. 

27.  The   House   of    Commons   no    longer   a    Representative 
Body;  the  First  Two   Georges  and  their  Ministers.  —  But  now 
that  the   Revolution  of   1688  had  done  its  work,  and  transferred  the 
power  of  the  crown  to  the  House  of  Commons,  a  new  difficulty  arose. 
That  was  the  fact  that  the  Commons  did  not  represent  the  people,  but 
stood  simply  as  the  representatives  of  a  small  number  of  rich  Whig  land- 

1  See  page  363,  Note  i.  !  See  page  282,  Note  i.          3  See  page  279  and  Notes  4  and  5. 

4  Freedom  of  worship  was  granted  to  Unitarians  in  1812. 

6  The  Act  of  Indemnity  of  1727  suspended  the  penalties  of  the  Test  and  the  Corporation 
Act;  they  were  both  repealed  in  1828. 

6  Later,   very   severe  laws  were  enacted  against  the  Catholics;    and   in   the   next  reign 
(Anne's)  the  Act  of  Occasional  Conformity  and  the  Schism  Act  were  directed  against  Prot- 
estant Dissenters. 

7  On  the  National  Debt  and  the  Bank  of  England,  see  page  288. 

8  See  page  284. 

•  Furthermore,  the  Corresponding  Societies'  Acts  (1793,  1799)  operated  for  a  time  as  a 
decided  check  on  the  freedom  of  the  press.  See  May's  Constitutional  History. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  439 

owners.1  In  many  towns  the  right  to  vote  was  confined  to  the  town- 
officers  or  to  the  well-to-do  citizens.  In  other  cases,  towns  which  had 
dwindled  in  population  to  a  very  few  inhabitants,  continued  to  have 
the  right  to  send  two  members  to  Parliament,  while  on  the  other  hand 
large  and  flourishing  cities  had  grown  up  which  had  no  power  to  send 
even  a  single  member.  The  result  of  this  state  of  things  was  that  the 
wealthy  Whig  families  bought  up  the  votes  of  electors,  and  so  regularly 
controlled  the  elections. 

Under  the  first  two  Georges,  both  of  whom  were  foreigners,  the 
ministers  —  especially  Robert  Walpole,  who  was  the  first  real  prime 
minister  of  England,  and  who  held  his  place  for  twenty  years  (1722- 
1742)  —naturally  stood  in  the  foreground.  They  understood  the  ins 
and  outs  of  English  politics,  while  the  two  German  sovereigns,  the  first 
of  whom  never  learned  to  speak  English,  neither  knew  nor  cared  any- 
thing about  them.  When  men  wanted  favors  or  offices,  they  went  to 
the  ministers  for  them.  This  made  men  like  Walpole  so  powerful  that 
George  II.  said  bitterly,  "  In  this  country  the  ministers  are  kings." 

28.  George  III.'s  Revival  of  "  Personal  Monarchy " ;  the 
"King's  Friends."  —  George  III.  was  born  in  England,  and  prided 
himself  on  being  an  Englishman.  He  came  to  the  throne  fully  re- 
solved, as  Walpole  said,  "  to  make  his  power  shine  out,"  and  to  carry 
out  his  mother's  constant  injunction  of,  "  George,  be  king !  "  To  do  this, 
he  set  himself  to  work  to  trample  on  the  power  of  the  ministers,  to  take 
the  distribution  of  offices  and  honors  out  of  their  hands,  and  further- 
more to  break  down  the  influence  of  the  great  Whig  families  in  Parlia- 
ment. He  had  no  intention  of  reforming  the  House  of  Commons,  or 
of  securing  the  representation  of  the  people  in  it ;  his  purpose  was  to 
gain  the  control  of  the  House,  and  use  it  for  his  own  ends.  In  this 
he  was  thoroughly  conscientious,  according  to  his  idea  of  right,  —  for  he 
believed  with  all  his  heart  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  England,  —  only 
he  thought  that  welfare  depended  on  the  will  of  the  king  much  more 
than  on  that  of  the  nation.  His  maxim  was  "  everything  for,  but  noth- 
ing by,  the  people."  By  liberal  gifts  of  money,  —  he  spent  ,£25,000 
in  a  single  day  (1762)  in  bribes,2  —  by  gifts  of  offices  and  of  honors  to 
those  who  favored  him,  and  by  taking  away  offices,  honors,  and  pen- 
sions from  those  who  opposed  him,  George  III.  succeeded  in  his  pur- 
pose. He  raised  up  a  body  of  men  in  Parliament,  known  by  the 
significant  name  of  the  "  King's  Friends,"  who  stood  ready  at  all  times 
to  vote  for  his  measures.  In  this  way  he  actually  revived  "personal 
monarchy  "  8  for  a  time,  and  by  using  his  "Friends  "in  the  House  of 
Commons  and  in  the  Lords  as  his  tools,  he  made  himself  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  checks  imposed  by  the  constitution. 

1  The  influence  of  the  Whigs  had  secured  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  which 
brought  in  the  Georges ;  for  this  reason  the  Whigs  had  gained  the  chief  political  power. 

*  Pitt  (Lord  Chatham)  was  one  of  the  few  public  men  of  that  day  who  would  neither  give 
nor  take  a  bribe;  Walpole  declared  with  entire  truth  that  the  great  majority  of  politicians 

>nal 


44O  LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

29.  The  American  Revolution.  —  The  king's  power  reached  its 
greatest  height  between  1770-1782.     He  made  most  disastrous  use  of 
it,  not  only  at  home,  but  abroad.     He  insisted  that  the  English  colonists 
in  America  should  pay  taxes  without  representation  in  Parliament,  even 
of  that  imperfect  kind  which  then  existed  in  Great  Britain.     This  de- 
termination brought  on  the  American  Revolution  —  called  in  England 
the  "  King's  War."     The  war,  in  spite  of  its  ardent  support  by  the 
"  King's  Friends,"  roused  a  powerful  opposition  in  Parliament.     Chat- 
ham, Burke,  Fox,  and  other  able  men   protested   against   the   king's 
arbitrary  course.     Finally  Dunning  moved  and  carried  this  resolution 
(1780)  in  the  Commons :  "  Resolved,  that  the  power  of  the  crown  has 
increased,  is  increasing,  and  ought  to  be  diminished."     This  vigorous 
proposition  came  too  late  to  affect  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  England 
lost   the  most  valuable   of    her   colonial   possessions.     The   struggle, 
which  ended  successfully  for  the  patriots  in  America,  was  in  reality  part 
of  the  same  battle  fought  in  England  by  other  patriots  in  the  halls  of 
Parliament.     On  the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic  it  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  national  independence ;  on  the  eastern  side,  in  the 
final  overthrow  of  royal  tyranny  and  the  triumph  of  the  constitution. 
It  furthermore  laid  the  foundation  of  that  just  and  generous  policy  on 
the  part  of  England  toward  her  other  colonies,  which  has  made  her 
mistress  of  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  empire  on  the  globe. 

30.  John  Wilkes   and  the  Middlesex  Elections ;  Publication 
of  Parliamentary  Debates.  —  Meanwhile  John  Wilkes,  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  had  gained  the  recognition  of  a  most  impor- 
tant principle.     He  was  a  coarse  and  violent  opponent  of  the  royal 
policy,  and  had  been  expelled  from  the  House  on  account  of  his  bitter 
personal  attack  on  the  king.1     Several  years  later  (1768)  he  was  re- 
elected  to  Parliament,  but  was  again  expelled  for  seditious  libel ; 2  he 
was  three  times  re-elected  by  the  people  of  London  and  Middlesex, 
who  looked  upon  him  as  the  champion  of  their  cause ;  each  time  the 
House  refused  to  permit  him  to  take  his  seat,  but  at  the  fourth  election 
he  was  successful.     A  few  years  later  (1782)  he  induced  the  House  to 
strike  out  from  its  journal  the  resolution  there  recorded  against  him.8 
Thus  Wilkes,  by  his  indomitable  persistency,  succeeded  in  establishing 
the  right  of  the  people  to  elect  the  candidate  of  their  choice  to  Parlia- 
ment.    During  the  same  period  the  people  gained  another  great  victory 
over  Parliament.     That  body  had  utterly  refused  to  permit  the  debates 
to  be  reported  in  the  newspapers.     But  the  redoubtable  Wilkes  was 
determined  to  obtain  and  publish  such  reports  ;  rather  than  have  another 
prolonged  battle  with  him,  Parliament  conceded  the  privilege  (1771). 
The  result  was  that  the  public  now,  for  the  first  time,  began  to  know 
what  business  Parliament  actually  transacted,  and  how  it  was  done. 
This  fact  of  course  rendered  the  members  of  both  houses  far  more 

1  In  No.  45  of  the  North  Briton  (1763)  Wilkes  rudely  accused  the  King  of  having  deliber- 
ately uttered  a  falsehood  in  his  speech  to  Parliament. 

2  The  libel  was  contained  in  a  letter  written  to  the  newspapers  by  Wilkes. 

*  The  resolution  was  finally  stricken  out,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  "  subversive  of  the 
rights  of  the  whole  body  of  electors." 


CONSTITUTIONAL    SUMMARY.  441 

directly  responsible  to  the  will  of  the  people  than  they  had  ever  been 
before.1 

31.  The  Reform  Bills  of  1832,  1867,  1885;  Demand  for  "Man- 
hood Suffrage."  —  But  notwithstanding  this  decided  political  progress, 
still  the  greatest  reform  of  all  —  that  of  the  system  of  electing  members 
of  Parliament  —  still  remained  to  be  accomplished.      Cromwell  had 
attempted  it  (1654),  but  the  Restoration  put  an  end  to  the  work  which 
the  Protector  had  so  wisely  begun.     Lord  Chatham  felt  the  necessity 
so  strongly  that  he  had  not  hesitated  to  declare  (1766)  that  the  system 
of  representation  —  or  rather  misrepresentation  —  which  then  existed 
was  the  "  rotten  part  of  the  constitution."     "  If  it  does  not  drop,"  said 
he,  "  it  must  be  amputated."     Later  (1770)  he  became  so  alarmed  at 
the  prospect  that  he  declared  that  "before  the  end  of  the  century 
either  the  Parliament  will  reform  itself  from  within,  or  be  reformed 
from  without  with  a  vengeance." 

But  the  excitement  caused  by  the  French  Revolution  and  the  wars 
with  Napoleon,  not  only  prevented  any  general  movement  of  reform, 
but  made  it  possible  to  enact  stringent  laws  against  agitation  in  that 
direction.2  Finally,  however,  the  unrepresented  millions  refused  to 
endure  their  condition  any  longer.  They  rose  in  their  might,8  and  by 
terrible  riots  made  it  evident  that  it  would  be  dangerous  for  Parliament 
to  postpone  action  on  their  demands.  The  Reform  Bill  —  "  the  Great 
Charter  of  1832  "  —  was  passed.  It  swept  away  the  "  rotten  boroughs," 
which  had  so  long  been  a  disgrace  to  the  country.  It  granted  the  right 
of  election  to  many  large  towns  in  the  midlands  and  the  north  which 
had  hitherto  been  unable  to  send  members  to  Parliament,  and  it  placed 
representation  on  a  broader,  healthier,  and  more  equitable  basis  than 
had  ever  existed  before.  It  was  a  significant  fact  that  when  the  first 
reformed  Parliament  met,  composed  largely  of  Liberals,  it  showed  its  true 
spirit  by  abolishing  slavery  in  the  West  Indies.  Later  (1848)  the  Chart- 
ists advocated  further  reforms,4  most  of  which  have  since  been  adopted. 

In  1867  an  act,5  scarcely  less  important  than  that  of  1832,  broadened 
representation  still  further;  and  in  1888  the  franchise  was  again  ex- 
tended. A  little  later  (1888)  the  County  Council  Act  reconstructed 
the  local  self-government  of  the  country  in  great  measure.6  The  cry  is 
now  for  unrestricted  "manhood  suffrage,"  —  woman  suffrage  in  a  lim- 
ited degree  already  exists,7  —  and  the  demand  is  also  for  the  recognition 
of  the  principle  of  "one  man  one  vote."8 

32.  Extension  of  Religious  Liberty;  Admission  of  Catholics 
and  Jews  to  Parliament ;  Free  Trade.  —  Meanwhile  immense  prog- 

1  The  publication  of  Division  Lists  (equivalent  to  Yeas  and  Nays)  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1836  and  by  the  Lords  in  1857  completed  this  work.  Since  then  the  public  have 
known  how  each  member  of  Parliament  votes  on  every  important  question. 

1  See  pages  345,  346.      s  See  pages  34J-354-      4  s=e  pages  363,  364.      »  See  pages  373,  374. 

8  The  Local  Government  or  County  Council  Act:  this  gives  to  counties  the  management 
of  their  local  affairs  and  secures  uniformity  of  method  and  of  administration.  See  Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia  (revised  ed.)  "  County  Councils."  7  See  page  373  and  Note  4. 

8  That  is,  the  abolition  of  certain  franchise  privileges  springing  from  the  possession  of  landed 
property  in  different  counties  or  Parliamentary  districts,  by  which  the  owner  of  such  property 
is  entitled  to  cast  more  than  one  vote  for  a  candidate  for  Parliament. 


442  LEADING   FACTS    OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

ress  was  made  in  extending  the  principles  of  religious  liberty  to  all  bodies 
of  believers.  After  nearly  three  hundred  years  (or  since  the  Second 
Act  of  Supremacy,  1559),  Catholics  were  (1830)  admitted  to  the  House 
of  Commons;  and  in  the  next  generation  (1858)  Jews  were  likewise 
admitted.  Recent  legislation  (the  Oaths'  Act  of  1888)  makes  it  impossi- 
ble to  exclude  any  one  on  account  of  his  religious  belief  or  unbelief. 

Commercially  the  nation  has  made  equal  progress.  The  barbarous 
corn-laws1  were  repealed  in  1848,  the  narrow  protective  policy  of  cen- 
turies abandoned ;  and  since  that  period  England  has  practically  taken 
its  stand  on  unlimited  free  trade  with  all  countries. 

33.  Condition  of  Ireland ;  Reform  in  the  Land  and  the  Church 
Laws;  Civil  Service  Reform;  Education;  Conclusion.  —  In  one 
direction,  however,  there  had  been  no  advance.  Ireland  was  politi- 
cally united  to  Great  Britain2  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  (1801); 
but  long  after  the  Irish  Catholics  had  obtained  the  right  of  representa- 
tion in  Parliament,  they  were  compelled  to  submit  to  unjust  land  laws, 
and  also  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  Established  (Protestant) 
Church  in  Ireland.  Finally,  through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Gladstone  and 
others,  this  branch  of  the  Church  was  disestablished  (i869);8  later 
(1870  and  1881)  important  reforms  were  effected  in  the  Irish  land  laws.4 

To  supplement  the  great  electoral  reforms  which  had  so  widely 
extended  the  power  of  the  popular  vote,  two  other  measures  were  now 
carried.  One  was  that  of  Civil  Service  Reform  (1870),  which  opened 
all  clerkships  and  similar  positions  in  the  gift  of  the  government  to  the 
free  competition  of  candidates,  without  regard  to  their  political  opin- 
ions. This  did  away  with  most  of  that  demoralizing  system  of  favor- 
itism which  makes  government  offices  the  spoils  by  which  successful 
political  parties  reward  "little  men  for  little  services." 

The  same  year  ( 1870)  England,  chiefly  through  Mr.  Forster's  efforts, 
took  up  the  second  measure,  the  question  of  national  education.  The 
conviction  gained  ground  that  if  the  working-classes  are  to  vote,  then 
they  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  ignorance  —  the  nation  declared 
"we  must  educate  our  future  masters."  In  this  spirit  a  system  of 
elementary  government  schools  was  established,  which  gives  instruction 
to  tens  of  thousands  of  children  who  hitherto  were  forced  to  grow  up 
without  its  advantages.6  These  schools  are  not  yet  wholly  free,  although 
recent  legislation  6  practically  puts  most  of  them  on  that  basis. 

Thus  England  stands  to-day  on  a  strong  and  broad  foundation  of 
liberal  political  suffrage  and  of  national  education.  The  tendencies  now 
indicate  that  before  many  years  both  will  become  absolutely  free  and 
absolutely  universal. 

This  brief  sketch  of  English  Constitutional  History  shows  conclu- 
sively that  the  nation's  record  is  one  of  slow  but  certain  progress. 
To-day  England  stands  a  monarchy  in  name,  but  a  republic  in  fact ; 
a  sovereign  reigns,  but  the  people  rule.  The  future  is  in  their  hands. 

1  Corn  Laws:  see  pages  365-368.    2  On  the  union  of  Scotland  with  England,  see  page  298. 
3  See  page  375.  *  See  pages  376,  377.  B  See  page  375. 

8  The  Assisted  Education  Act  of  1891.  _  This  gives  such  a  degree  of  government  assistance 
to  elementary  schools  that  the  instruction  in  them  is  now  virtually  rendered  free. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DOCUMENTS. 

Abstract  of  the  Articles  of  Magna  Cart  a  (1215).  — i.  "  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land shall  be  free,  and  have  her  whole  rights,  and  her  liberties  inviolable."  The  freedom  of 
elections  of  ecclesiastics  by  the  Church  is  confirmed.  2-8.  Feudal  rights  guaranteed,  and 
abuses  remedied.  9-11.  Treatment  of  debtors  alleviated.  12.  "  No  scutage  or  aid  [except 
the  three  customary  feudal  aids}  shall  be  imposed  in  our  kingdom,  unless  by  the  Common 
Council  of  the  realm." l  13.  London,  and  all  towns,  to  have  their  ancient  liberties. 
14.  The  King  binds  himself  to  summon  the  Common  Council  of  the  realm  respecting  the 
assessing  of  an  aid  (except  as  provided  in  13)  or  a  scutage.^  15,  16.  Guarantee  of  feudal 
rights  to  tenants.  17-19.  Provisions  respecting  holding  certain  courts.  20,  21.  Of  amerce- 
ments. They  are  to  be  proportionate  to  the  offence,  and  imposed  according  to  the  oath 
^f  honest  men  in  the  neighborhood.  No  amercement  to  touch  the  necessa'-y  means  of 
tubsistence  of  a  free  man,  the  merchandise  of  a  merchant,  or  the  agricultural  tools  of  a 
villein  ;  earls  and  barons  to  be  amerced  by  their  equals.  23-34.  Miscellaneous,  minor 
articles.  35.  Weights  and  measures  to  be  uniform.  36.  Nothing  shall  be  given  or  taken, 
for  the  future,  for  the  Writ  of  Inquisition  of  life  or  limb,  but  it  shall  be  freely  granted, 
and  not  denied.*  37,  38.  Provisions  respecting  land  tenure  and  trials  at  law.  39.  "No 

FREEMAN  SHALL  BE  TAKEN  OR  IMPRISONED,  OR  DISSEIZED,  OR  OUTLAWED,  OR  BANISHED,  OR  ANY 
WAYS  DESTROYED,  NOR  WILL  WE  PASS  UPON  HIM,  NOR  WILL  WE  SEND  UPON  HIM,  UNLESS  BY 
THE  LAWFUL  JUDGMENT  OF  HIS  PEERS,  OR  BY  THE  LAW  OF  THE  LAND."  40.  "  WE  WILL  SELL 
TO  NO  MAN,  WE  WILL  NOT  DENY  TO  ANY  MAN,  EITHER  JUSTICE  OR  RIGHT."  41,  42.  PrO- 

visions  respecting  merchants,  and  freedom  of  entering  and  quitting  the  realm,  except  in  war 
time.  43-46.  Minor  provisions.  47,  48.  Provisions  disafforesting  all  forests  seized  by 
John,  and  guaranteeing  forest  rights  to  subjects.  49-60.  Various  minor  provisions. 
62.  Provision  for  carrying  out  the  charter  by  the  barons  in  case  the  King  fails  in  the  performance 
of  his  agreement.  63.  The  freedom  of  the  Church  reaffirmed.  Every  one  in  the  kingdom  to 
have  and  hold  his  liberties  and  rights. 

"  Given  under  our  hand,  in  the  presence  of  the  witnesses  above  named,  and  many  others, 
in  the  meadow  called  Runnymede  between  Windsor  and  Staines,  the  isth  day  of  June,  in  the 
i7th  of  our  reign."  [Here  is  appended  the  King's  seal.] 

Confirmation  of  the  Charters  by  Edward  I.  (1397).  —  In  1297  Edward  I. 
confirmed  Magna  Carta  and  the  Forest  Charter  granted  by  Henry  III.  in  1217  by  letters 
patent.  The  document  consists  of  seven  articles,  of  which  the  following,  namely,  the  sixth  and 
seventh,  are  the  most  important. 

6.  Moreover  we  have  granted  for  us  and  our  heirs,  as  well  to  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots, 
priors,  and  other  folk  of  holy  Church,  as  also  to  earls,  barons,  and  to  all  the  commonalty  of 
the  land,  tiuA  for  no  business  from  henceforth  will  we  take  such  manner  of  aids,  tasks, 
nor  prises  but  by  the  common  consent  of  the  realm,  and  for  the  common  profit  thereof, 
saving  the  ancient  aids  and  prises  due  and  accustomed. 

7.  And  for  so  much  as  the  more  part  of  the  commonalty  of  the  realm  find  themselves  sore 
grieved  with  the  maletote  [i.e.  an  unjust  tax  or  dutyj  of  wools,  that  is  to  wit,  a  toll  of  forty 
shillings  for  every  sack  of  wool,  and  have  made  petition  to  us  to  release  the  same;  we,  at 
their  requests,  have  clearly  released  it,  and  have  granted  for  us  and  our  hejrs  that  we  shall 
not  take  such  thing  nor  any  other  without  their  common  assent  and  good  will;  saving  to  us 
and  our  heirs  the  custom  of  wools,  skins,  and  leather,  granted  before  by  the  commonalty 
aforesaid.  In  witness  of  which  things  we  have  caused  these  our  letters  to  be  made  patents. 
Witness  Edward  our  son,  at  London,  the  loth  day  of  October,  the  five-and-twentieth  of  our 
reign. 

And  be  it  remembered  that  this  same  Charter,  in  the  same  terms,  word  for  word,  was  sealed 
in  Flanders  under  the  King's  Great  Seal,  that  is  to  say,  at  Ghent,  the  sth  day  of  November, 
in  the  2sth  year  of  the  reign  of  our  aforesaid  Lord  the  King,  and  sent  into  England. 

THE    PETITION    OF    RIGHT. 

JUNE  7,  1622. 

The  Petition  exhibited  to  His  Majesty  by  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and 
Commons  in  this  present  Parliament  assembled,  concerning  divers  Rights  and  Lio- 
erties  of  the  Subjects,  with  the  King's  Majesty »  Royal  Answer  thereunto  in  full 
Parliament. 

To  THE  KING'S  MOST  EXCELLENT  MAJESTY:  Humbly  show  unto  our  Sovereign  Lord 
the  King,  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons  in  Parliament  assembled,  that 
whereas  it  is  declared  and  enacted  by  a  statute  made  in  the  time  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 

1  These  important  articles  were  omitted  when  Magna  Carta  was  reissued  in  1216  by 
Henry  III.  Stubbs  says  they  were  never  restored;  but  Edward  I.,  in  his  Confirmation  of  the 
Charters,  seems  to  reaffirm  them.  See  the  Confirmation;  see  also  Gneist's  Eng.  Const.,  11,9- 

*  This  article  is  regarded  by  some  authorities  as  the  prototype  of  the  statute  of  Habeas 
Corpus  ;  others  consider  that  it  is  implied  in  Articles  39-40. 

443 


444 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


the  First,  commonly  called  Statutum  de  Tallagio  non  concedendo,1  that  no  tallage  [here, 
a  tax  levied  by  the  King  upon  the  lands  of  the  crown,  and  upon  all  royal  towns]  or  aid  shall 
be  laid  or  levied  by  the  King  or  his  heirs  in  this  realm,  without  the  goodwill  and  assent  of 
the  Archbishops,  Bishops,  Earls,  Barons,  Knights,  Burgesses,  and  other  the  freemen  of  the 
commonalty  of  this  realm:  and  by  authority  of  Parliament  holden  in  the  five  and  twentieth 
year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  the  Third,  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that  from  thenceforth 
no  person  shall  be  compelled  to  make  any  loans  to  the  King  against  his  will,  because  such 
loans  were  against  reason  and  the  franchise  of  the  land;  and  by  other  laws  of  this  realm  it  is 
provided,  that  none  should  be  charged  by  any  charge  or  imposition,  called  a  Benevolence,  or 
by  such  like  charge,  by  which  the  statutes  before-mentioned,  and  other  the  good  laws  and 
statutes  of  this  realm,  your  subjects  have  inherited  this  freedom,  that  they  should  not  be 
compelled  to  contribute  to  any  tax,  tallage,  aid,  or  other  like  charge,  nor  set  by  common 
consent  in  Parliament. 

Yet  nevertheless,  of  late  divers  commissions  directed  to  sundry  Commissioners  in  several 
counties  with  instructions  have  issued;  by  means  whereof  your  people  have  been  in  divers 
places  assembled,  and  required  to  lend  certain  sums  of  money  unto  your  Majesty,  and  many 
of  them  upon  their  refusal  so  to  do,  have  had  an  oath  administered  unto  them,  not  warrantable 
by  the  laws  or  statutes  of  this  realm,  and  have  been  constrained  to  become  bound  to  make 
appearance  and  give  attendance  before  your  Privy  Council,  and  in  other  places,  and  others  of 
them  have  been  therefore  imprisoned,  confined,  and  sundry  other  ways  molested  and  dis- 
quieted: and  divers  other  charges  have  been  laid  and  levied  upon  your  people  in  several 
counties,  by  Lords  Lieutenants,  Deputy  Lieutenants,  Commissioners  for  Musters,  Justices 
of  Peace  and  others,  by  command  or  direction  from  your  Majesty  or  your  Privy  Council, 
against  the  laws  and  free  customs  of  this  realm: 

And  where  also  by  the  statute  called,  "  The  Great  Charter  of  the  Liberties  of  England,"  it 
is  declared  and  enacted,  that  no  freeman  may  be  taken  or  imprisoned  or  be  disseised  of  his 
freeholds  or  liberties,  or  his  free  customs,  or  be  outlawed  or  exiled;  or  in  any  manner 
destroyed,  but  by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land: 

And  in  the  eight  and  twentieth  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  the  Third,  it  was 
declared  and  enacted  by  authority  of  Parliament,  that  no  man  of  what  estate  or  condition  that 
he  be,  should  be  put  out  of  his  lands  or  tenements,  nor  taken,  nor  imprisoned,  nor  disherited, 
nor  put  to  death,  without  being  brought  to  answer  by  due  process  of  law: 

Nevertheless,  against  the  tenor  of  the  said  statutes,  and  other  the  good  laws  and  statutes 
of  your  realm,  to  that  end  provided,  divers  of  your  subjects  have  of  late  been  imprisoned 
without  any  cause  showed,  and  when  for  their  deliverance  they  were  brought  before  your 
Justices,  by  your  Majesty's  writs  of  Habeas  Corpus,  there  to  undergo  and  receive  as  the 
Court  should  order,  and  their  keepers  commanded  to  certify  the  causes  of  their  detainer;  no 
cause  was  certified,  but  that  they  were  detained  by  your  Majesty's  special  command,  signified 
by  the  Lords  of  your  Privy  Council,  and  yet  were  returned  back  to  several  prisons,  without 
being  charged  with  anything  to  which  they  might  make  answer  according  to  law: 

And  whereas  of  late  great  companies  of  soldiers  and  mariners  have  been  dispersed  into 
divers  counties  of  the  realm,  and  the  inhabitants  against  their  wills  have  been  compelled  to 
receive  them  into  their  houses,  and  there  to  suffer  them  to  sojourn,  against  the  laws  and 
customs  of  this  realm,  and  to  the  great  grievance  and  vexation  of  the  people: 

And  whereas  also  by  authority  of  Parliament,  in  the  2$th  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 
the  Third,  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that  no  man  shall  be  forejudged  of  life  or  limb  against 
the  form  of  the  Great  Charter,  and  the  law  of  the  land:  and  by  the  said  Great  Charter  and 
other  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm,  no  man  ought  to  be  adjudged  to  death;  but  by 
the  laws  established  in  this  your  realm,  either  by  the  customs  of  the  same  realm  or  by  Acts 
of  Parliament :  and  whereas  no  offender  of  what  kind  soever  is  exempted  from  the  proceedings 
to  be  used,  and  punishments  to  be  inflicted  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm: 
nevertheless  of  late  divers  commissions  under  your  Majesty's  Great  Seal  have  issued  forth, 
by  which  certain  persons  have  been  assigned  and  appointed  Commissioners  with  power  and 
authority  to  proceed  within  the  land,  according  to  the  justice  of  martial  law  against  such 
soldiers  and  mariners,  or  other  dissolute  persons  joining  with  them,  as  should  commit  any 
murder,  robbery,  felony,  mutiny,  or  other  outrage  or  misdemeanour  whatsoever,  and  by  such 
summary  course  and  order,  as  is  agreeable  to  martial  law,  and  is  used  in  armies  in  time  of 
war,  to  proceed  to  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  such  offenders,  and  them  to  cause  to  be 
executed  and  put  to  death,  according  to  the  law  martial: 

By  pretext  whereof,  some  of  your  Majesty's  subjects  have  been  by  some  of  the  said  Com- 
missioners put  to  death,  when  and  where,  if  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of  the  land  they  had 
deserved  death,  by  the  same  laws  and  statutes  also  they  might,  and  by  no  other  ought  to  have 
been,  adjudged  and  executed. 

1  A  Statute  concerning  Tallage  not  granted  by  Parliament.  This  is  now  held  not  to  have 
been  a  statute.  See  Gardiner's  Documents  of  the  Puritan  Revolution,  page  i.  It  is  con- 
sidered by  Stubbs  an  unauthorized  and  imperfect  abstract  of  Edward  I.'s  Confirmation  of 
the  Charters  —  which  see. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    DOCUMENTS.  445 

And  also  sundry  grievous  offenders  by  colour  thereof,  claiming  an  exemption,  have 
escaped  the  punishments  due  to  them  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm,  bv  reason 
that  divers  of  your  officers  and  ministers  of  justice  have  unjustly  refused,  or  forborne  to 
proceed  against  such  offenders  according  to  the  same  laws  and  statutes,  upon  pretence 
that  the  said  offenders  were  punishable  only  by  martial  law,  and  by  authority  of  such  com- 
missions as  aforesaid,  which  commissions,  and  all  other  of  like  nature,  are  wholly  and  directly 
contrary  to  the  said  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm: 

They  do  therefore  humbly  pray  your  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  that  no  man  hereafter 
be  compelled  to  make  or  yield  any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such  like  charge,  with- 
out common  consent  by  Act  of  Parliament ;  and  that  none  be  called  to  make  answer,  or 
take  such  oath,  or  to  give  attendance,  or  be  confined,  or  otherwise  molested  or  disquieted 
concerning  the  same,  or  for  refusal  thereof ;  and  that  no  freeman,  in  any  such  manner 
as  is  before-mentioned,  be  imprisoned  or  detained  ;  and  that  your  Majesty  will  be  pleased 
to  remove  the  said  soldiers  and  mariners,  and  that  your  people  may  not  be  so  burdened 
in  time  to  come  ;  and  that  theforesaid  commissions  for  proceeding  by  martial  law,  may 
be  revoked  and  annulled  ;  and  that  hereafter  no  commissions  of  like  nature  may  issue 
forth  to  any  person  or  persons  whatsoever,  to  be  executed  as  aforesaid,  lest  by  colour  of 
them  any  of  your  Majesty's  subjects  be  destroyed  or  put  to  death,  contrary  to  the  laws 
and  franchise  of  the  land. 

All  which  they  most  humbly  pray  of  your  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  as  their  rights  and 
liberties  according  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm:  and  that  your  Majesty  would  also 
vouchsafe  to  declare,  that  the  awards,  doings,  and  proceedings  to  the  prejudice  of  your  people, 
in  any  of  the  premises,  shall  not  be  drawn  hereafter  into  consequence  or  example:  and  that 
your  Majesty  would  be  also  graciously  pleased,  for  the  further  comfort  and  safety  of  your 
people,  to  declare  your  royal  will  and  pleasure,  that  in  the  things  aforesaid  all  your  officers 
and  ministers  shall  serve  you,  according  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm,  as  they  tender 
the  honour  of  your  Majesty,  and  the  prosperity  of  this  kingdom. 

[Which  Petition  being  read  the  2nd  of  June  1628,  the  King  gave  the  following  evasive  and 
unsatisfactory  answer,  instead  of  the  usual  one,  given  below.] 

The  King  willeth  that  right  be  done  according  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm:  and 
that  the  statutes  be  put  in  due  execution,  that  his  subjects  may  have  no  cause  to  complain  of 
any  wrong  or  oppressions,  contrary  to  their  just  rights  and  liberties,  to  the  preservation 
whereof  he  holds  himself  as  well  obliged  as  of  his  prerogative. 

On  June  7  the  King  decided  to  make  answer  in  the  accustomed  form,  Soit  droit  fait 
comme  est desire.  [Equivalent  to  the  form  of  royal  assent,  "  le  roi  (or  la  reigne)  le  veult." 
See  page  362,  Note  3.  On  the  Petition  of  Right  see  Hallam  and  compare  Gardiner's  England 
and  his  Documtnts  of  the  Puritan  Revolution. 

The  Bill  of  Rights  (1689).  — This  Bill  consists  of  thirteen  Articles,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  an  abstract.  It  begins  by  stating  that  "  Whereas  the  late  King  James  II.,  by  the 
advice  of  divers  evil  counsellors,  judges,  and  ministers  employed  by  him,  did  endeavor 
to  subvert  and  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion,  and  the  laws  and  liberties  of  this  King- 
dom;" i.  By  dispensing  with  and  suspending  the  laws  without  consent  of  Parliament.  2.  By 
prosecuting  worthy  bishops  for  humbly  petitioning  him  to  be  excused  for  concurring  in  the 
same  assumed  power.  3.  By  erecting  a  High  Commission  Court.  4.  By  levying  money 
without  consent  of  Parliament.  5.  By  keeping  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace  without 
consent  of  Parliament.  6.  By  disarming  Protestants  and  arming  Papists.  7.  By  violating  the 
freedom  of  elections.  8.  By  arbitrary  and  illegal  prosecutions.  9.  By  putting  corrupt  and 
unqualified  persons  on  juries.  10.  By  requiring  excessive  bail.  n.  By  imposing  excessive 
fines  and  cruel  punishments.  12.  By  granting  fines  and  forfeiture  against  persons  before 
their  conviction. 

It  is  then  declared  that  "  the  late  King  James  the  Second  having  abdicated  the  government, 
and  the  throne  being  thereby  vacant,"  therefore  the  Prince  of  Orange  ("  whom  it  hath  pleased 
Almighty  God  to  make  the  glorious  instrument  of  delivering  their  kingdom  from  Popery  and 
arbitrary  power")  did  by  the  advice  of  "the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  divers  prin- 
cipal persons  of  the  Commons  "  summon  in  Convention  Parliament. 

This  Convention  Parliament  declares,  that  the  acts  above  enumerated  are  contrary  to  law. 
They  then  bestow  the  Crown  on  William  and  Mary  —  the  sole  regal  power  to  be  vested  only 
in  the  Prince  of  Orange  —  and  provide  that  after  the  decease  of  William  and  Mary  the 
Crown  shall  descend  "  to  the  heirs  of  the  body  of  the  said  Princess;  and,  for  default  of  such 
issue,  to  the  Princess  Anne  of  Denmark  *  and  the  heirs  of  her  body;  and  for  default  of  such 
issue,  to  the  heirs  of  the  body  of  the  said  Prince  of  Orange." 

Here  follows  new  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  in  lieu  of  those  formerly  required. 

The  subsequent  articles  are  as  follows:  IV.  Recites  the  acceptance  of  the  Crown  by  Wil- 
liam and  Mary.  V.  The  Convention  Parliament  to  provide  for  "  the  settlement  of  the  religion, 

1  The  Princess  Anne,  sister  of  the  Princess  Mary,  married  Prince  George  of  Denmark  in 
1683;  hence  she  is  here  styled  "  the  Princess  of  Denmark." 


446 


LEADING    FACTS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY. 


laws  and  liberties  of  the  Kingdom."  VI.  All  the  clauses  in  the  Bill  of  Rights  are  "  the  true, 
ancient,  and  indubitable  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  of  this  Kingdom."  VII.  Recognition 
and  declaration  of  William  and  Mary  as  King  and  Queen.  VIII.  Repetition  of  the  settlement 
of  the  Crown  and  limitations  of  the  succession.  IX.  Exclusion  from  the  Crown  of  all  persons 
holding  communion  with  thje  '^Church  of  Rome  "  or  who  "  profess  the  Popish  religion  "  or  who 

tit 
of 


_  -_ Rights. 

XII.  The  Dispensing  Power  abolished.     XIII.   Exception  made  in  favor  of  charters,  grants, 
and  pardons  made  before  October  23,  1689. 

The  Act  of  Settlement  (17OO-17O1).1  — Excludes  Roman  Catholics  from  succes- 
sion to  the  Crown;  and  declares  that  if  a  Roman  Catholic  obtains  the  Crown,  "  the  people  of 
these  realms  shall  be  and  are  thereby  absolved  of  their  allegiance."  Settles  the  Crown  on  the 
Electress  Sophia,2  and  "  the  heirs  of  her  body  being  Protestants."  Requires  the  sovereign  to 
join  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  England.  No  war  to  be  undertaken  in  defence  of  any 
territories  not  belonging  to  the  English  Crown  except  with  the  consent  of  Parliament.  Judges 
to  hold  their  office  during  good  behavior.  No  pardon  by  the  Crown  to  be  pleadable  against  an 
impeachment  by  the  House  of  Commons. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ACTS  AND  LAWS. 

I.  Bill  of  Attainder.  —  This  was  a  bill  (which  might  in  itself  decree  sentence  of  death) 
passed  by  Parliament,  by  which,  originally,  the  blood  of  a  person  held  to  be  convicted  of 
treason  or  felony  was  declared  to  be  attainted  or  corrupted  so  that  his  power  to  inherit,  trans- 
mit, or  hold  property  was  destroyed.     After  Henry  VIII. 's  reign  the  law  was  modified  so  as 
not  to  work  "corruption  of  blood"  in  the  case  of  new  felonies.    Under  the  Stuarts,  Bills  of 
Attainder  were  generally  brought  only  in  cases  where  the  Commons  believed  that  impeachment 
would  fail  —  as  in  the  cases  of  Strafford  and  Laud.     It  should  be  noticed  that  in  an  Impeach- 
ment the  Commons  bring  the  accusation,  and  the  Lords  alone  act  as  judges ;  but  that  in  a 
Bill  of  Attainder  the  Commons  —  that  is,  the  accusers  —  themselves  act  as  judges,  as  well  as 
the  Lords. 

II.  Statute  of  Praemunire  (1393).  — This  statute  was  enacted  to  check  the  power 
claimed  by  the  Pope  in  England  in  cases  which  interfered  with  power  claimed  by  the  King,  as 
in  appeals  made  to  the  Court  of  Rome  respecting  Church  matters,  over  which  the  King's  court 
had  jurisdiction.     The  statute  received  its  name  from  the  writ  served  on  the  party  who  had 
broken  the  law:  "  Prcemunire facias  A.  B."  ;  that  is,  "  Cause  A.  B.  to  be  forewarned"  that 
he  appear  before  us  to  answer  the  contempt  with  which  he  stands  charged.     Henry  VIII. 
made  use  of  this  statute  in  order  to  compel  the  clergy  to  accept  his  supremacy  over  the 
English  Church. 

III.  Habeas  Corpus  Act  (1679) .  —  The  name  of  this  celebrated  statute  is  derived  from 
its  referring  to  the  opening  words  of  the  writ:  "  Habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum  "  (see  page 
269,  Note  i).     Sir  James  Mackintosh  declares  that  the  essence  of  the  statute  is  contained  in 
clauses  39,  40  of  Magna  Carta—  which  see.    The  right  to  habeas  corpus  was  conceded  by 
the  Petition  of  Right  and  also  by  the  Statute  of  1640.    But  in  order  to  better  secure  the  liberty 
of  the  subject  and  for  prevention  of  imprisonments  beyond  the  seas,  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act 
of  1679  was  enacted,  regulating  the  issue  and  return  of  writs  of  habeas  corpus. 

The  principal  provisions  of  the  Act  are:  i.  Jailers  (except  in  cases  of  commitment  for 
treason  or  felony)  must  within  three  days  of  the  reception  of  the  writ  produce  the  prisoner  in 
court,  unless  the  court  is  at  a  distance,  when  the  time  may  be  extended  to  twenty  days  at  the 
most.  2.  A  jailer,  refusing  to  do  this,  forfeits  j£ioo  for  the  first  offence,  and  .£200  for  the 
second.  3.  No  one  set  at  liberty  upon  any  Habeas  Corpus  to  be  re-committed  for  the  same 
offence  except  by  the  court  having  jurisdiction  of  the  case.  4.  The  Act  not  to  apply  to  cases 
of  debt. 

1  This  act,  says  Taswell  Langmead,  is  "  the  Title  Deed  of  the  reigning  Dynasty,  and  a 
veritable  original  contract  between  the  Crown  and  the  People." 

2  The  Electress  Sophia  was  the  granddaughter  of  James  I. ;  she  married  the  Elector  of  Han- 
over, and  became  mother  of  George  I.    See  page  403. 


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